kufi chapter –3.Evolution and Standardization of the Script

3.Evolution and Standardization of the Script

In the early Islamic period, the Arabic script remained in a relatively primitive state. It conspicuously lacked diacritical marks (dots) to distinguish between similar letters and contained no vowel markings. This deficiency made reading arduous, particularly for non-native Arabic speakers, as Islam rapidly expanded beyond the Arabian Peninsula. The third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644-656 CE), commissioned the first official compilation of the Qur’an, thereby establishing a standard text.

This monumental project necessitated significant improvements in the writing system to ensure the accurate preservation of the sacred text.

Under the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE), pivotal developments transpired:

• Introduction of Diacritical Marks: Abu al-Aswad al-Du’ali (d. 688 CE) is traditionally credited with introducing dots to differentiate between otherwise identical letters.
• Vowel Notation System: A system utilizing colored dots was devised to indicate short vowels, which are conventionally not written in Arabic script.
• Standardization: The script became progressively more standardized as its use expanded for administrative purposes throughout the burgeoning Islamic empire.

These innovations proved indispensable for preserving the correct recitation of the Qur’an and for facilitating the widespread adoption of Arabic literacy among non-Arab converts to Islam.

The mention of inclined letters in al-Nadim’s Fihrist renders the reference to this primitive corpus unambiguous. However, how prevalent were the denominations “Meccan” and “Madinan” during al-Nadim’s lifetime, and for how long had they been in existence by then? Were they intended to encompass all of the earliest Qur’anic scripts, or merely specific stylistic tendencies within them? Al-Nadim offers no further elaboration on the subject nor does he cite his sources.

The  Qur’anic codices produced during the caliphate of ʿUthmān may not yet have been strictly termed “Kufic,” they indisputably represent a foundational stage in its development. These early codices notably lacked diacritical marks and vowel signs—a reality that, given the polysemic nature of Arabic, frequently led to interpretive ambiguities. This intrinsic challenge propelled the gradual elaboration of a more precise writing system.

The Umayyad period witnessed the seminal introduction of diacritical markings by Abū al-Aswad al-Duʾalī, subsequently followed by the contributions of al-Khalīl ibn Aḥmad, who further refined the dotting system. These innovations substantially enhanced the clarity and functionality of the Arabic script, thereby reinforcing the pivotal role of Kufic script in the preservation and transmission of the Qur’an.

4, Kufi’s Expansion and Artistic Maturation

By the 8th and 9th centuries, Kufic was no longer confined exclusively to Qur’anic manuscripts. It began to proliferate across diverse media—architecture, coinage, ceramics, textiles, and metalwork. This significant diversification signals that Kufic had evolved into both a functional script and a potent symbolic medium. It matured into an aesthetic form that could be visually apprehended, physically touched, and seamlessly integrated into spatial environments.

During the Abbasid period, the formal institutionalization of calligraphy as an art form played a decisive role in the full maturation of Kufic script. Major cultural centers such as Baghdad, Kūfa, and Baṣra saw the burgeoning of scriptoria and schools dedicated to its ongoing development. Consequently, various regional and functional styles of Kufic began to emerge, including Eastern Kufic (mashriqī), Western Kufic (maghribī), Square Kufic (murabbaʿ), and ornamental Kufic, among others. Each distinct variant reflects specific cultural and aesthetic evolutions of the script.

From a paleographic perspective, studying the transformation of Kufic script offers critical insights into the broader history of writing itself. Early Qur’anic manuscripts typically featured large letters and generous spacing between lines. Over time, the script became more compact, stylistically elaborate, and enriched with decorative elements. These progressive changes reflect not only technical innovations in writing but also profound shifts in aesthetic sensibilities, religious consciousness, and political symbolism within Islamic societies.

A line of Arabic suggests an urgent progress of the characters from right to left. The nice balance between the vertical shafts above and the open curves below the middle register induces a sense of harmony. The peculiarity that certain letters cannot be joined to their neighbours provides articulation. For writing, the Arabic calligrapher employs a reed pen (qalam) with the working point cut on an angle. This feature produces a thick downstroke and a thin upstroke with an infinity of gradation in between. The line traced by a skilled calligrapher is a true marvel of fluidity and sensitive inflection, communicating the very action of the master’s hand. britannica

Calligraphy – Arabic, Scripts, Art | Britannica

Broadly speaking, there were two distinct scripts in the early centuries of Islam: cursive script and Kūfic script. For everyday purposes a cursive script was employed: typical examples may be seen in the Arabic papyri from Egypt. Rapidly executed, the script does not appear to have been subject to formal and rigorous rules, and not all the surviving examples are the work of professional scribes. Kūfic script, however, seems to have been developed for religious and official purposes. The name means “the script of Kūfah,” an Islamic city founded in Mesopotamia in 638 ce, but the actual connection between the city and the script is not clear. Kūfic is a more or less square and angular script. Professional copyists employed a particular form for reproducing the earliest copies of the Qurʾān that have survived. These are written on parchment and date from the 8th to the 10th century. They are mostly of an oblong as opposed to codex (i.e., manuscript book) format. The writing is frequently large, especially in the early examples, so that there may be as few as three lines to a single page. The script can hardly be described as stiff and angular; rather, the implied pace is majestic and measured.

Kūfic went out of general use about the 11th century, although it continued to be used as a decorative element contrasting with those scripts that superseded it. About 1000 a new script was established and came to be used for copying the Qurʾān. This is the so-called naskhī script, which has remained perhaps the most popular script in the Arab world. It is a cursive script based on certain laws governing the proportions between the letters. The two names associated with its development are Ibn Muqlah and Ibn al-Bawwāb, both of whom lived and worked in Mesopotamia. Of the latter’s work a single authentic example survives, a manuscript of the Qurʾān in the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin.

In summary, Kufic script emerged from within the nascent Arabic script tradition but rapidly transcended it, becoming a multifaceted cultural form that eloquently conveyed the sacred and aesthetic codes of Islamic civilization. Its paleographic evolution distinctly mirrors the broader transformation of Islamic societies—their core values, modes of expression, and distinct approaches to textuality. Thus, Kufic is not merely a relic of the distant past; it stands as one of the clearest indicators of how the written word has historically functioned as a profound bearer of faith, art, and identity.

Calligraphy – Arabic, Scripts, Art | Britannica

5,Kufic as an Archetype and Its Diverse Styles

Kufic represents the oldest calligraphic form; it developed around the seventh century, and by the orders of Caliph Uthman ibn Affan, it was extensively and exclusively employed for copying the Qur’an until the eleventh century. The Kufic script is a style of Arabic script that gained early prominence as the preferred script for Qur’an transcription and architectural decoration, and it has since become a fundamental reference and an archetype for numerous other Arabic scripts.

Kufic is characterized by its angular, rectilinear letterforms and its pronounced horizontal orientation. According to Enis Timuçin Tan, a primary characteristic of the Kufic script “appears to be the transformation of the ancient cuneiform script into the Arabic letters.” Furthermore, it was marked by figural letters specifically shaped to be beautifully rendered on parchment, buildings, and decorative objects like lusterware and coins.

Kufic script is fundamentally composed of geometrical forms such as straight lines and angles, alongside clear verticals and horizontals. Initially, Kufic did not possess what is now known as differentiated consonants, meaning, for example, that the letters “t,” “b,” and “th” were not distinguished by diacritical marks and appeared identical. During the first few centuries of Islam, Arabic was written without any vowel marks or dots, unlike how the Arabic script appears today. This was because these auxiliary markers were not yet necessary; the early Muslims were native Arabic speakers and could thus read the Qur’an without such aids. However, this changed as Islam expanded, becoming a multinational and multiracial religion. The necessity for vowel markings and dots arose to denote different sounds and establish distinctions between similar-looking characters, and these additions remain integral to the Qur’an today. The Kufic script dots were sometimes rendered in red ink. It is believed that a scribe named Abdul Aswad was the first to introduce these markings .

The Qur’an was initially written in a plain, slanted, and uniform script, but once its content became formalized, a script signifying authority emerged. This coalesced into what is now known as Primary Kufic script. Kufic was widely prevalent in manuscripts from the 7th to the 10th centuries. Around the 8th century, with its austere and relatively low vertical profile and strong horizontal emphasis, it stood as the most important among several variants of Arabic scripts. Until approximately the 11th century, it served as the principal script used for copying the Qur’an. Professional copyists employed a specific form of Kufic for reproducing the earliest surviving copies of the Qur’an, which were written on parchment and date from the 8th to 10th centuries. In later Kufic Qur’ans of the ninth and early tenth century, “the sura headings were more often designed with the sura title as the main feature, often written in gold, with a palmette extending into the margin,” as noted by Marcus Fraser. One impressive example of an early Qur’an manuscript, known as the Blue Qur’an, features gold Kufic script on parchment dyed with indigo.

It is commonly attributed to the early Fatimid or Abbasid court. The main text of this Qur’an is inscribed in gold ink, creating the striking effect of gold on blue when viewing the manuscript.

1. Regional Variations and Styles of Kufic

There were no rigidly set rules governing the use of the Kufic script; its only consistent feature was the angular, linear shapes of its characters. Due to this lack of standardized methods, the scripts varied considerably across different regions, countries, and even among individual scribes, leading to diverse creative approaches. These ranged from very square and rigid forms to more flowery and decorative styles.

Several regional variations of Kufic script evolved over time:

• Maghribi (Moroccan or Western) Kufic: While still rigid, linear, and thick, Maghribi Kufic script features a significant amount of curves and loops, in contrast to the more rectilinear original Arabic Kufic script. Loops for characters such as the Waw and the Meem are notably pronounced and sometimes exaggerated.
• Kufi Mashriqi (Eastern Kufic): This is a thinner, more cursive, and decorative form of Kufic prevalent in eastern regions. The nib of the pen used for this style is finer, and it exhibits greater cursiveness, with some characters extending into long, sweeping strokes. Nevertheless, it remains within the angular vocabulary characteristic of Kufic script.
• Fatimi Kufi: Predominant in the North African region, particularly Egypt. Since this script is highly stylized and decorative, this form was primarily utilized in the ornamentation of buildings. Fatimi Kufi script can be observed with intricate decorations among the characters, suchulating the inclusion of the Endless Knot or vegetal motifs, both within the character itself and as a background design.
• Square Kufic (Murabba’ Kufi): Also known as geometric Kufic, this is a highly simplified rectangular style widely adopted for tiling. It is characterized by absolute straightness with no decorative accents or curves whatsoever. Due to this extreme rigidity, this type of script can be readily created using square tiles or bricks. It is particularly popular in Iran and Turkey, where in the latter, it was a favored decoration for buildings during the Ottoman Empire.
• Decorative Kufic: Primarily used for adorning daily items such as plates, bowls, vases, or ewers. Quite often, inscriptions executed in this script are barely legible due to the extensive ornamentation. A letter might virtually disappear within elaborate decorations that could involve transforming letters into vegetal forms like vines and leaves, or by being written very thinly with exaggerated vertical lines and curves.
• Ghaznavid and Khourasan Scripts: In Iran, in addition to Kufi Mashriqi script (also referred to as the Piramouz script), other forms include the Ghaznavid and Khourasan scripts. These scripts were mostly employed for monument decoration, coinage, and daily items. The Khourasan script is as thick as the Original Arabic Kufic script, but with a simple flair added to each character. The Ghaznavid Kufi features elongated vertical lines and rounded ends, often with surrounding decorations.

1. Ornamental Use of Kufic Script

Ornamental Kufic emerged as a crucial element in Islamic art as early as the eighth century, serving for Qur’anic headings, numismatic inscriptions, and significant commemorative writings. The Kufic script is famously inscribed on textiles, coins, lusterware, buildings, and other artifacts. Coins, in particular, played a very important role in the development of Kufic script. Indeed, “the letter strokes on coins had become perfectly straight, with curves tending toward geometrical circularity by 86,” observes Alain George. As an example, Kufic is commonly seen on Seljuk coins and monuments and on early Ottoman coins. In Iran, entire buildings are sometimes covered with tiles spelling sacred names like those of God, Muhammad, and Ali in Square Kufic, a technique known as banna’i. There is also “Pseudo-Kufic” or “Kufesque,” terms that refer to imitations of the Kufic script made in a non-Arabic context during the Middle Ages or the Renaissance. The distinct artistic styling of Kufic eventually led to its decorative use in Europe, outside of an Arabic context, particularly on architecture.

 The Enduring Legacy of Kufi Calligraphy

The history of Arabic script and Kufic calligraphy represents one of the most significant artistic and cultural developments in Islamic civilization. From its humble beginnings as a practical writing system to its elevation as a sublime art form, Arabic calligraphy has played a central role in shaping Islamic visual culture and identity. The development of Arabic script reflects the dynamic interplay of religious, political, cultural, and aesthetic factors throughout Islamic history. The early standardization efforts during the Umayyad and Abbasid periods laid the foundation for the flourishin  of calligraphic arts. The contributions of master calligraphers like Ibn Muqla, Ibn al  Bawwab, and Yaqut al-Musta’simi established systematic approaches to letter formation that continue to influence calligraphers today. Kufic calligraphy, with its distinctive angular character, holds a special place in this history as the first formalized style of Arabic script. Its use in early Quranic manuscripts and architectural decoration established a visual language that became immediately recognizable as Islamic. The evolution of Kufic into various regional styles demonstrates the adaptability and creative potential of this script. The political dimension of Arabic calligraphy cannot be overlooked. Throughout Islamic history, rulers and elites patronized calligraphers and used calligraphic inscriptions to assert their legitimacy and piety. The mutual relationship between political power andNcalligraphic development shaped the evolution of styles and techniques. The versatility of Arabic calligraphy is evident in its application across various media— from manuscripts to monumental architecture, from textiles to metalwork, from coins to ceramics. This adaptability allowed calligraphy to permeate all aspects of Islamic material culture, creating a unified visual language across diverse regions and periods. The significance of Arabic calligraphy extends far beyond its aesthetic appeal. As a sacred art connected to divine revelation, a cultural symbol that unites diverse communities, an aesthetic tradition of remarkable sophistication, an intellectual discipline that integrates various fields of knowledge, and a social practice embedded incomplex networks of patronage and power, calligraphy has played a central role in shaping Islamic civilization. In the contemporary world, Arabic calligraphy continues to evolve and adapt to new contexts while maintaining its connection to tradition. Modern calligraphers and artists draw inspiration from historical styles while experimenting with new materials, techniques, and compositions. Educational initiatives aim to preserve and transmit calligraphic knowledge to future generations. The enduring legacy of Arabic script and Kufic calligraphy can be seen in its continued vitality and relevance. As one source eloquently states, “Its historical roots, spiritual significance, and aesthetic beauty make it an integral part of Islamic heritage; whether engraved in the walls of a mosque or carefully inscribed upon the pages of a manuscript, Islamic calligraphy invites us to pause, reflect, and appreciate the beauty of words written in the name of Allah” In a world increasingly dominated by digital communication and mass-produced imagery, the handcrafted beauty and spiritual depth of Arabic calligraphy offer a powerful reminder of the potential for human creativity to express and embody sacred values. The tradition of Arabic calligraphy thus stands as one of the most significant and distinctive contributions of Islamic civilization to world culture, a living tradition that continues to evolve while maintaining its essential connection to its spiritual and cultural roots.

Contemporary Significance Cultural Heritage and Identity

In the contemporary world, Arabic calligraphy continues to serve as an important marker of cultural heritage and identity for Muslims. As traditional arts face challenges from globalization and technological change, calligraphy has taken on new significance as a link to Islamic cultural roots. Recognition of this importance can be seen in recent initiatives like Saudi Arabia extending the Year of Arabic Calligraphy into 2021 and UNESCO registering the art form on its Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage. These efforts reflect a growing awareness of the need to preserve and promote calligraphic traditions for future generations.

Timeline of Arabic Script and Kufic Calligraphy

Here is a timeline of the historical developments of the Arabic script and Kufic calligraphy, enriched with additional information, relics, and milestones: