kufi calligraphy: the sacred script

اِقْرَأْ بِاسْمِ رَبِّكَ الَّذٖي خَلَقَۚ

,خَلَقَ الْاِنْسَانَ مِنْ عَلَقٍۚ

اِقْرَأْ  وَ رَبُّكَ الْاَكْرَمُۙ 

اَلَّذٖي عَلَّمَ بِالْقَلَمِۙ

عَلَّمَ الْاِنْسَانَ مَا لَمْ يَعْلَمْؕ 

Qur’an /Alak

Recite: In the name of thy Lord who created
Created man of a blood-clot.
Recite: And thy Lord is the most Generous,
Who taught by the Pen
Taught Man,that he knew not
Qur’an/  The Blood-clot (1)

وَعَلَّمَ اٰدَمَ الْاَسْمَٓاءَ كُلَّهَا
And He taught Adam the names, all of them
Quran/ The Cow 31

Ma’nâ yı-kelâm şâhid i-mazmûn i-Hudâdır
Gönlüm sadefinden olur azrâ gibi peydâ

“The meaning of the word  professes
the hidden existence of God in it”

This word, likewise a virgin pearl,
occurs in my heart which is the mother-of-pearl.”
Şeydâ Dîvânı, Tevhid Kasidesi

.سم الله الرحمن الرحيم

الحمد لله الذي خلق القلم أولاً و كتب الكتاب المكنون بذلك القلم في اللوح المحفوظ . و فيه كتب كل المقدّرات، من البداية إلى يوم القيامة. هو الله الخالق لكل أمرٍ و شأن. و الشكر لا يعد لمن خلق الإنسان و علّمه البيان .  و هو علّم آدم الأسماء كلّها، و علّم بالقلم ، و علّم الإنسان ما لم يعلم .  لأن الوحي الأوّل كان اقرأ باسم ربّك و قيل في تلك الآية هو الذي علم بالقلم 

.كما كان هذا القسم بالقلم في القرآن, ن و القلم و ما يسطرون

…و في القرآن له آية تدل على ماهیت القرآن. بل هو قرآن مجيد في لوحٍ محفوظ

صلوا على محمّد هو كشف الدجى بنور الوحي و نوّر قلوب العارفين به . و بدأ الخط الكوفي في عصره ليكتب آيات القرآن ولقد كان القرآن مصدر الفكر والحضارة الإسلامية كلها. والقرآن كتب بالخط الكوفي لعدة قرون. ولهذا السبب أصبح الخط الكوفي أشهر في تمثيل الحضارة الإسلامية. كما كان الان . وهذا من فضل  ربي

In the name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful

Praise be to God who created the Pen first and the hidden book was written with that pen on the Preserved Tablet. In it are written all the decrees, from the beginning until the Day of Resurrection. He is God, the Creator of every matter and phenomen. Countless Gratitude is to the One who created man and taught him speech.  He taught Adam all the names, taught with the pen, and taught man what he did not know.  Because the first revelation was “Read in the name of your Lord,” and it also was said in that verse: “He is the one who taught with the pen.” As this oath was in the pen in the Qur’an Nun, by the pen, and what the lines it writes…And in the Qur’an there is a verse that indicates that qur’an is eternal. But rather it is glorious Qur’an in a preserved tablet.

Pray for Muhammad, he removes darkness with the light of revelation and enlightens the hearts of those who know him. In his era, the Kufic script began to write verses of the Qur’an, and the Qur’an was the source of all Islamic thought and civilization. The Qur’an was written in Kufic script for centuries. For this reason, the Kufic script became a representation of Islamic civilization.          As it was now. This is from the grace of my Lord.

In what manner silent letters of the kufic script has become  a resonant spectrum of islamic culture?

A Philosophical Perspective on Writing, Human Knowledge, History And Historical Significance of the Kufic Script:

Sacred Text, Revelation, and the Ontology of Writing

The nature of writing  kûfî calligraphy  goes beyond to its material structure or symbolic letters; because it was the materialized face of the sacred word, manifested  face of the sacred revelation of Qur’an. because Qur’an’s mediating role  between the human heart and Allah, that is the soul of Qur`an had been embodied by kufic sript.  According to Qur’anic revelation, writing is not merely a record but a manifestation—an embodiment—of divine knowledge. As it is expressed, in the aforementioned epigraph, in the very first verses of the Qur’an;

“Recite in the name of your Lord who created—
Created man from a clinging substance.
Recite, and your Lord is the Most Generous—
Who taught by the pen—
Taught man what he did not know.” (Qur’an, 96:1–5)

 The pen (al-qalam)’  as described in this verse by Qur’an, is  not only an instrument of writing but of divine instruction.  Here, the Pen is not only a tool but a sacred symbol that records knowledge foreseeing to become alive later, to come into the act of creation.

In fact, Qur’an instructs to begin with God’s name and commands human beings to learn, to read, and to pursue knowledge. It is an interesting mixtum compositum that   creation, knowledge, and writing  mentioned all together in the  first verses of Qur’an. Human existence, the capacity for learning, and the act of writing are intertwined in a singular ontological structure here. And  the name of revelation, The Qur’an itself, means ‘to be recited’;  that is, meaning itself  is revealed in the heart of  the words and apparently materialized and represented as kufic script’ and then become alive when it is recited as Qur’an. 

This ontological framework highlights here the metaphysical question of representation—how truth is made manifest. Here, the Qur’anic concept of the Lawḥ Maḥfūẓ (Preserved Tablet) becomes pertinent. The Qur’an itself, as a timeless text, is said to be inscribed on the eternal tablet:

بل هو قرآن مجيد في لوحٍ محفوظ

“Indeed, it is a glorious Qur’an,
In a Preserved Tablet.” (Qur’an, 85:21–22)

Here, The Lawḥ Maḥfūẓ is understood as the cosmic ledger of divine decree, destiny, and knowledge. In this context, writing is not merely a communicative tool but a metaphysical register. The transcription of the Qur’an into written form does not reduce its timelessness; rather, it translates the eternal into the human realm of comprehension. Here, kufic script serves not only ontological but also a theophanic function.

Islamic scholars have addressed these themes across theological, linguistic, and philosophical dimensions. Linguists such as Ibn Fāris and Ibn Jinnī maintained that language and writing possess a divine origin, grounding this belief in the verse: 

 وَعَلَّمَ اٰدَمَ الْاَسْمَٓاءَ كُلَّهَا :

“And He taught Adam the names—all of them…” (Qur’an, 2:31)

Indeed, according to Qur’an, human language also had been taught to Adam by God; according to this verse, language is not a conventional communication instrument made by men.

This verse does not refer solely to vocabulary acquisition but also  to the naming of meanings, concepts, and even realities. Accordingly, writing is not simply a human invention but part of the ontological continuity of divine instruction—a vehicle of revelation, an embodiment of meaning, and a visible form of truth.

اِقْرَأْ  وَ رَبُّكَ الْاَكْرَمُۙ 

اَلَّذٖي عَلَّمَ بِالْقَلَمِۙ

Recite: And thy Lord is the most Generous,

Who taught by the Pen

Taught Man,that he knew not

Qur’an/ The Blood-clot 

Writing, in this view, is not a creation but a tajallī—a divine manifestation.

It is believed by orthodox (sünnî) muslim that Qur’an is the word of God brought by Gebrail to the consciousness of Muhammad and being so, Qur’an is the incarnation of the word of God and has no beginning in time likewise the guarded scripture (levh’ mahfuz).

Because of this levh-i mahfuz, which is a metaphysical guarded book and includes all the events from the beginning until doomsday, naturally a theological problem would arise: Predestination. In that case, is there a free choice of human volition? If it is the word of God brought by Gebrail to the prophet, is this word, the Qur’an is created in time or not? Because it is revealed from what God who created before everything else the Pen/kalem and the guarded book/levhi mahfuz. Even the name of revealation, “Qur’an” means reading aloud, Reciting, the name does not designate a book in usual sense. Perhaps ıt could be understood as reciting  some verses of  Lewhi Mahfuz as revealed to prophet’s conscıousness. And what about the nature of revealation as a mystical experience of Prophet . As an altered state of conscıousness? How and why he organized his believers to establish a ‘theonomous order’ which tied them by both faith and politics. Why Qur’an does not have a usual book format and why prophet did not ask from his ‘clerks of revealation’  to write down all the verses of the Qur’an regularly in a book format. All these questions and many similar  questions also are discussed by many sectarian theologians beginning from the first century of Islam. Why Language and even Writing are regarded as not  created by men but given to Adam according to some medieaval islamic scholars?

For example , ibn al-Faris says that, ‘no doubt the script is not an artwork (sun’u) of humanity’, it is not man-made. And according to Qalqashandi, arabic letters also are revealed to Adam or prophet Hud’.

According to this view, writing is not merely a tool of communication but an extension of revelation and contemplation. It is the visual embodiment of the divine attribute of speech (kelām). 

If writing stems from a divine source, then letters and symbols do not simply signify meaning—they embody and transmit it. Each grapheme becomes a theophany, not merely a sign. Alternatively, if writing is a human construct, then letters and symbols are arbitrary indicators whose meaning is produced through consensus and context.

Muhammed Antakî says in his book ‘el Vecîz fî Fıkh ül-Lüga’(p.25-27)  ‘because of the above-mentioned verse of the Qur’an, ‘He taught Adam all the names (وَعَلَّمَ اٰدَمَ الْاَسْمَٓاءَ كُلَّهَا),  some muslim scholars  say that the language itself is not created by men but taught to Adam by God (Tevkîfî) and according to some other muslim scholars -who also speak  quoting another Qur’anic verses; language came into existence culturally made by men ( bi’t-tevatu).

Within this Islamic intellectual tradition, this inquiry has largely revolved around the question of whether language is of divine origin (tawqīfī) or a human invention (isti‘lāḥī or taʿātī); yet, this issue is not merely a philosophical curiosity but an epistemological question that directly informs the meaning of writing itself—especially sacred writing in Arabic—and, by extension, the semantic depth of the Kufic script.

According to Muhammad Antaki, such debates are not exclusive to Islamic thought. In Western philosophy, too, the same question arises. The quest for the origin of language begins in ancient Greeks with this question: ‘is a name’s designation to the reality of a thing is created by men with convention (tevatu) or comes from the nature of man’ (is it taught by God to Adam?) According to Heraclit, language/logos is not made by men; that is, the name signifies the the named thing naturally. according to Democritos it is made by men; language also, likewise all other man-made elements of culture, made by conventions between people.’ Plato’s Cratylus famously stages the conflict between the view that names are “natural” (phýsei) and the view that they are conventional (thései). Do names reflect the essence of things, or are they arbitrary? This remains a central concern in modern philosophy of language. While Plato leans toward the idea that some names may be inherently appropriate, the nominalist tradition would later dominate Western discourse. Thinkers such as John Locke, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Saul Kripke reconceived the relationship between words and meaning through frameworks of mental representation, social usage, and linguistic practice.  This dispute goes on in western philosophy until now but it is not necessary here to quote what more western philosophers say about this matter.

As transmitted in the book ‘Fıkh ul-Luga’ (semantics),  İbni Faris says that Arabic language is tevkîfî (god-given) according to the aforement’ned verse of the Qur’an that states God taught to Adam all the names.  Ibni Faris does not only give this  kind of evidence  (naklî) which is based on Qur’an verses, but also  make a reasoning (aklī) evidence that, “ because we do not know any example of giving a name to something by the people who lived in the  recent past, also we did not hear that companions of prophet has made new names or terms…”  Yet the majority of muslim scholars say that `origin of the language is tevatu’(by convention) and language is  istilah (terminology); it is not made by ilham, vahiy (revealation) or tevkîf (God-given)’. For example, Kadı Ebubekir el Bâkıllânî says that both are possible: “inne t-ta’lim kad husile bi’l-ilhâm ey bi’l kuvveti, lekad vadaa allahu fi’l-linsân meleketü’l halk, sümme terekehu yahluku alâ hevâihi” which means “Adam learned by reveleation, that is the language is God-given or God gave to man ability to create and leave him to create as he wish”. Abū Bakr al-Bāqillānī and some other scholars also argued that writing developed gradually as a product of social convention and human intellect. According to this view, writing arises not from a sacred origin but from rational necessity and human adaptation. It is not tawqīfī (divinely fixed) but ta‘ātī (emergent from mutual human exchange).This dichotomy over the origin of language has profound implications for the relationship between writing and meaning.

Indeed, this is a universal philosophical question about meaning and representation. 

This is a difficult subject in semantics and I know it can not be expressed in short with some few and simple statements. For example, Saul Kripke has made large semantical and logical discussions about ‘naming’ in his book ‘Naming and Necessity’. I will mention here these contemporary logical and semantical arguments about naming merely making an interesting excerpt from Saul Kripke:

‘Sometimes we discover that two names have the same referent, and express this by an identity statement.so, for example, you see a star in the evening and it’s called ‘Hesperus’ (evening star). We see a star in the morning and caal it ‘Phosphorus (morning star). Well, then,in fact we find that it’s not a star, but is the planet Venus and that Hesperus and Phosphorus are in fact same. So we express this by ‘Hesperus is Phosphorus’…Also we may raise the question whether a name has any reference at all when we ask, e.g.,whether Aristotle ever existed… what really is queried is whether anything answers to the properties we associate with the name-in the case of Aristotle, whether  any one greek philosopher produced certain works, or at least a suitable number of them.`

Kripke’s famous example—the dual naming of the planet Venus as Phosphorus (morning star) and Hesperus (evening star)—exemplifies the complexity of reference and naming. Although the two names refer to the same celestial object, their different usages suggest distinct epistemic paths. This complicates the question of whether writing merely reflects reality or actively constitutes it. The act of naming—and by extension writing—is not merely descriptive but generative of meaning.

In fact it is possible to discuss in this context Leibnitz law of identity, `identity of indiscernibles`, but I do not wish to delve into all the philosophical implications of Qur’anic verses, yet I have to say that words or names may imply more than its apparent meaning. Words or names may imply much more difficult problematic philosophical matters than it has been understood by their traditional usage in the language. And so, sometimes they even transcend the capacity of human reasoning.  I do not wish to debate here any human belief, so I will not discuss here Leibnitz’s law; but I suspect that, if I could dispute in large context this  idea of “identity of indiscernibles” of Leibnitz; in that case, not only naming but even the identity of the named things could seem dubious. Let me remind here that identity is the first principle of logic, i.e. “a thing is what it is”, other rules of logic also derived from this identity principle; and being so, all human reasoning depends on identity principle. The most satisfactory statement of identity was indeed, “ego sum qui sum”, which is said to Moses on the Mount Sinai according to Old Testament. Yet scholars, especially some theologians, do not know that human knowledge, language and reasoning capacity of humanity are not capable of answering satisfactorily every problem of truth we have come face to face. As beautifuly stated by Hallâc: “Truth is true only for itself!”

That is, within Islamic thought, these philosophical concerns converge on writing. Kufic script, in this regard, is not merely a stylistic choice but a material manifestation of the sacred ontological and theological dimensions of writing. It is not meant only to be read but to be contemplated, visualized, and intuitively grasped.

But I do not wish to discuss those names ‘Qur’an (recitation), Kitabu meknûn/Levhi mahfuz (kept and guarded book) with all of the historical and theological implications of these names; i.e., predestination/fate problem or the  role of man in the actions of historical events. After all, this is an essay about the calligraphy of kufi, not particularly theology or the “sacred scripture Qur’an itself”.

Thus, in the early centuries of Islamic civilization, Kufic script emerged not only as a mode of writing but also as a metaphysical structure through which the sacred was represented. It serves as a conduction channel for transferring revelation into spatial and temporal registers. It is the symbolically embodied aspect of articulating metaphysical truths as revealed by Qur`an.

Thus, the usage of Kufic script in the earliest Qur’anic manuscripts enabled a strong identification between the form of writing and the content it carried. Within this framework, geometric composition of the script might be perceived as a visual symbol of divine mystery. Its symmetrical balance of vertical and horizontal lines seems like the divine order embedded in the universe. The space between letters, the proportional heights and widths letters, were functional features—but they also became revered as part of a sacred style that reinforced the sanctity of the message.

Let me remind here Ibn al-ʿArabī’s theory of the “ontology of letters” which is especially illuminating. According to Ibn al-ʿArabī, every letter is a theophany—an outward manifestation of one of the metaphysical realities contained in divine knowledge. Letters are not accidental phonetic tools; they are expressions of divine being. Writing becomes a surface upon which these theophanies appear. The fixed geometric nature of Kufic script shows its ontological and metaphysical charge more visibly potent.

Ibn al-ʿArabī  says: “All praise be to Allah, who instills meanings into the heart of words.” For Ibn al-ʿArabī, all letters are symbolic representations of God’s creative act. A letter is not merely a sound unit but the primordial shape of a being. Ibn al-ʿArabī’s theory of letters elevates this discussion to a mystical plane. In his thought, letters become the metaphysical building blocks of existence, each reflecting an aspect or attribute of the Divine Names.

This idea again resonates in the mystical dictum of al-Ḥallāj:

“Letters are bodies, and meanings are their souls.”

As if, the architectural form of Kufic script embodies a belief that letters carry a metaphysical essence. Kufic calligraphy solemnly displays and suggests the aesthetical and visual expression of this reverence for the sacred words.

These theological implications of Kufic script is not confined to the shapes of letters alone. The materials with kufi inscriptions or the space it occupies like mihrab, also contribute to its semantic richness. Qur’an verses written in Kufic script are not only vehicles of oral transmission but served also as visual representations of divine revelation.  Some Qur’anic verses in Kufic script were often integrated into architectural surfaces—thus making revelation to merge with space and amplifying the symbolic power of the script.

This intermingling of writing with cosmic order is implied by Qur’anic verses such as the opening of Sūrat al-Qalam:

“Nūn. By the pen and what they inscribe.” (Qur’an, 68:1)

Here, The Pen is not an ordinary object but as aforementioned it is the first creation of God, inscribing divine decree and order into existence. Hadith traditions also affirm this interpretation, stating that the first thing God created was the Pen. Here, writing signifies not only knowledge production but also the act of inscribing destiny and existence.

Kufic calligraphy, according to this cosmological symbolism, seems both static and dynamic. It seems majestic and static in its geometric fixity; but also dynamic because it embodies revelation and continually acquires new layers of meaning in time. Its static form suggests permanence, but its dynamic semiotic potential emphasize the timeless relevance of the sacred message.

Moreover, the structural  design of Kufic script could imply a reverence for an aesthetical feeling which aligns closely with the Islamic concept of tawḥīd—the oneness and unity of God. Its repetitive, proportionate, majestic visual character commonly used on important buildings makes Kufic calligraphy an aesthetic affirmation of divine unity and also an identity symbol of Islamic civilization. Each letter occupies a specific place in this visual cosmos; nothing is arbitrary. In such a way, Kufic script becomes a visual and symbolic articulation of tawḥīd at both the formal and conceptual levels.

It really occupies a distinctive position within this representational framework.E.g., its geometric construction produces a space where form and meaning meet. Its solemn and majestic abstraction invites not only textual reading but also intuitive contemplation. Kufic does not assert meaning directly; it intimates, alludes, and beckons the observer toward a metaphysical horizon.

 As if, Kufic script visually expresses the belief that letters are not just phonetic units but ontological entities. Al-Ḥallāj’s dictum –“Letters are bodies, meanings are their souls”- resonates here as a metaphysical hermeneutic.

Kufic script, then, does not merely transcribe a text—it transmits the very structure of its meaning. The ratios between letters, their symmetrical layout, recurrence, and internal logic are not simply visual choices but they reflect an architecture of meaning. Kufic is simultaneously a bearer and producer of meaning, an aesthetic system through which ontological truths are encoded.

This understanding of Kufic calligraphy marks it as a unique expression of the Islamic conception of the relationship between writing and truth. While preserving sacred content, it also suggests that meaning is not static but always subject to reinterpretation. Kufic’s formal rigidity offers a visual anchor through which shifting interpretations may gain stability.

In conclusion, debates over the origin of language and writing are not merely historical but ontological and epistemological in nature. Kufic calligraphy stands at the center of this discourse: it embodies the sacred, provokes reflection on meaning, and channels metaphysical resonance. In the silence of its letters, one hears the echoes of a vast cultural and theological vision. It is not just a calligraphy—it is a metaphysical architecture, a form of thought, and a sanctuary for meaning.

This is why the versatile symbolism of Kufic script, appears so often in Islamic architecture. It usually adorns domes, mihrabs, or arches, so Kufic becomes as an act of devotion, contemplation, and transmission of knowledge. Kufic inscriptions of sacred texts onto architectural surfaces show within this uniformity of style that space itself becomes a symbol of tewhid (unity of Allah), a bearer of the unique meaning and identity of Islamic civilization.

That is, Kufic script manifests the integral interrelationship among knowledge, revelation, destiny, and aesthetics in Islam. Its geometric form implies cosmic order; its metaphysical dimension transforms letters into symbols of being. Kufic calligraphy  is not merely writing—it seems as if it is the embodiment of theological truth and a sacred way through which the unseen is made visible.

On the other hand, there is a striking similarity between levh- i mahfuz /guarded plate/ preserved plate (which Qur’an also means reciting some of the verses from that guarded book revealed by archangel Gebrail to prophet Muhammed’s heart) and contemporary simulation practice. As if, this writing act resembles the contemporary practice of writing some algorithm codes of a computer-game which later comes into play whenever you wish to play that game. Indeed, those verses of Qur’an about the guarded tablet (levhi mahfuz) reminds me some contemporary discussions about whether this universe, the existence, is real or a simulation or what not. As it is known, some virtual reality games are only written algorithms, they are written by a code-script and it becomes alive to be seen and played in computer games on a screen. Nowadays some physic theorists seriously argue that universe could be a simulation written and played likewise those virtual reality games. Sure, it could be thought so, metaphorically or seriously; and it is interesting to see that what Qur’an describes as Pen and Guarded Scripture (levhi mahfuz) articulates exactly the same idea: God created Pen and the pen wrote every events from the beginning to the doomsday. That is, like a virtual game, what happened in this universe is written/ or coded and predestined in that guarded book (levhi mahfuz/kitabu meknûn) and then all events happen according to the codes of that guarded-book which means our universe is only a simulation, there should be a real existence but this world is not real; it is just like a virtual game, a virtual reality.

Anyway because of the belief about above-mentioned levhi mahfuz/guarded book, same simulation metaphor used by a Turkish poet too. I will include the calligraphy of Neyzen Tevfik poem also which says:

Yazılmış alnına her neyse fi’liin, reddi nâkaabil

Hüner, bu defter-i âmâl-i ömrü hoşca dürmektir

Musaddaktır bu î’lâm tâ ezelelden muhr-i hikmetle

Cihâna gelmeden maksad bu tatbikâtı görmektir”\

“Whatever is written on the forehead of the deed, its rejection is impossible

Skill is to neatly fold this book of life’s deeds.

This declaration is confirmed with the seal of wisdom from eternity.

The purpose for coming into the world is to witness these practices.

We know already from neurophysiology and consciousness studies that, what we know as the world or existence, is a simulated picture made by human consciousness.  As metaphorically explained by Donald Hoffmann, human consciousness is like a computer interface which is a simplified but useful description of the world. I remember here Edgar A. Poe’s beautiful poem which he says:

`All that we see or seem

Is but a dream within a dream.’

’

On knowledge and the limits of human consciousness

 We have spoken about prophetic revelation of Qur’an and its theological implications.} but what about ordinary methods used by humankind in search of wisdom? For a gratifying understanding of an investigation one must be aware of different perspectives imposed by different standpoints, because kufic script itself is the most common and identifying facet of islamic culture. Indeed, a multi-discipliner approach is necessary to grasp the full implications of this subject; that is, a larger framework of understanding provided by a con-spective/ holistic philosophy of history. But then, to adapt a holistic perspective means one must try to grasp the meaning in a different light with every different standpoint; in this case, this discourse becomes too much enlarged and it will include every important aspect of human thought and destiny.

Nevertheless, I will try to define, as short as possible, my classification of different standpoints and varieties of explanatory perspectives used in search of wisdom. According to my judgement there are seven pillars of wisdom, that is seven way of constructing perspectives as different kinds of interpretation in search of understanding. I think my classification of these different perspectives could determine the method and content of the disciplines as differing viewpoints for making sense of its content of that discipline according to the spesific perspective it belongs to. That is the viewpoint of History is retrospective (retro-spectare) science is pro-spectare/prospection , philosophy is inspection, art is introspection, mystical experience is introspection by illumination, religious wisdom also provides a perspective for orientation and philosophy of history should have taken a holistic perspective ; i.e., ‘t should take into account all of these different perspectives trying to merge them as a holistic “con-spection”.  The purpose of my classification of disciplines according to a perspective is to show the limits of capabilities of every discipline by its differing perspective and limited angle of its standpoint. In short, every kind of knowledge or understanding should be assured that there are many different perspectives for making sense of a subject; all of these understanding styles need to be filtered and re-examined and also re-evaluated by a holistic philosophy of history conspectively for a real understanding. So be it! And this is why I am trying to comprehend all of the aspects of kufic scripture from this holistic perspective of my philosophy of history.

But according to my philosophy of history not only these perspectives of understanding and reasoning tools of humanity are all considered some limited ways of comprehension, but also human understanding of reality is a narrow angle beginning from the “consciousness-capacity” of humankind.

Perhaps, I have to speak here little bit more about human consciousness, because, what we know about any culture or what we enjoy or hate in the world, all knowledge depends on our consciousness. And there are many unsolved facets of human consciousness. Later on comes the semantical problems of human languages and also problem of knowledge and defects of human reasoning. Yet, in spite of mankind’s limited ability of comprehension, we have to make sense of our studies taking into consideration every different perspective about the nature of those studied subjects, to be sure, as far as possible for in the limits of human abilities. Later on comes the evaluation  of  those mentioned sven disciplines and human knowledge in general. According to my understanding philosophy of history should provide a holistic understanding of wisdom to provide an orientation and a projective vision of future about the destiny of humankind, if it is going to be fruitful.

There is this verse in The Bible, Corinthians 13:11: “Videmus nunc per speculum in aenigmate: tunc autem facie ad faciem. Nunc cognosco ex parte: tunc autem cognoscam sicut et cognitus sum.”: For now, we see only a reflection as in a mirror; then we shall see face to face. Now I know in part; then I shall know fully, even as I am fully known.” This verse is rephrased by St Jerome,  and he says: “per speculum videmus in aenigmate; et ex parte cognoscimus, et ex parte prophetamus”; that is, ”we see in an enigma through the looking glass in the dark: we comprehend in part, and in part we prophetize to foreshow events.”  In fact, this is a statement that compares knowledge and belief. But consciousness also reflects the reality just like that. My consciousness is the mirror of my mind, and the reality is some enigmatic light rays reflected by the eye to the mirror of the mind, but they are reflected only in part, i.e., only visible light frequencies between 400-800nanometers. Indeed, most of the photons of the visible light again infiltrated twice by the two layers of the retina of the human eye. Then processed as ionized electro-chmic events separately with so many brain neurons to be perceived at last; as movement, color, shape etc. And then th’s partial sense datums are  united again constructed by the mind as the picture of reality. In such a way, we are made aware of this enigma of the world in our speculum mentis, within the mirror of the mind. It is clear that the mind cannot touch to that enigmatic reality itself directly, but the mind can build only an impression of reality by its consciousness. Although that dictum had been said in a context of theology, it is also a beautiful and terse description about human knowledge and the position of historians and historical knowledge.

That is, consciousness aware of the outside world only by sensory inputs. I cannot doubt from the contents of my own consciousness, but let us remember that there is more than that impression which is reflected in the mirror of the mind.  I can never doubt that it is my consciousness, it belongs to myself,  and I am made  aware of myself with my self-consciousness  and same consciousness makes sense of the foreign natural forces or realities; like electromagnetic force which touches and disturbs my eye’s retina as light photons, or the weak and strong forces of atoms as material, touchable and sensible objects, either soft liquid or hard solid materials, and also gravity because of the inner ear’s sense of balance. They are not me, not myself,  but some foreign forces of reality/nature that affect me. Thanks to my consciousness, I am made aware of those natural forces as an alien reality which is independent and not related to my-self. Metaphorically speaking, our skulls/cranium resembles the speculum of St Jerome, let us suppose that the eyes are the doors of cranium, then it also seems plausible to compare it with the Cave Metaphor of Plato.  My consciousness and my Mind resides in the cranium of my head like a caveman; It senses only very limited and weak part of some light spectrum which comes throughout the eye’s door., I can see only a dim light ray reflected in the mirror of my mind or let me say, on the walls of the cave. If only I could go outside the cave,  then I would see a very different reality than the shadows on the wall of the cave, or reflected in my mind’s mirror. From this metaphor comes the discussion of the world of ideas world and reality.

But can we leave the cave and go to see the outside world? My self or my mind cannot walk and go outside from the cave of its cranium/skull and make a direct contact with reality. In this case, the mind is forced to make an inference from what it senses about reality, a second-hand inferenced knowledge about the alien outside world by using the mirror/ wall of its consciousness, some impressions about the reality as the reflected shadows on the wall of a cave. It really resembles Plato’s famous cave metaphor or St Jerome’s dark mirror. I think Donald Hoffman’s metaphor of interface is also very good consciousness really resembles the computer interface we see on the desktop of a computer. Consciousness is an interface or an illusion of reality created by mind.

But then, if our consciousness also is a second-hand knowledge, what we can know directly about reality-in-itself?  What we know for sure?  The only thing I can not doubt is  that I am Consciouss and also that consciousness belongs to me (it is not necessary now to speak about many different consciousness modes). That is, the most undisputable thing is not consciousness but rather the self-awareness attribute of that consciousness. According to the modern physicalist viewpoint of consciousness, even that self-awareness also is a construction of the mind. Sure as a Philosopher I can doubt and debate everything. But if you do not accept the validity of selfhood also then there is no dependable or unsusceptible ground on which we can stand and debate with each other. According to my judgment that self-awareness is the most basic and undebatable identity principle. There can be no logic without identity.  Ego sum qui sum: I am that I am.  that is a tautology that refers to itself with identity principle,and all logical rules depends on the identity. Anything is what it is!  But our rational  reasoning instruments has also their limitations and aberrations.  I only mention here that, according to my judgement, Logic, language and math- these rational reasoning tools also have their intrinsic paradoxes and limitations which we can not eliminate easily. As once Wittensgenstein also said: ‘Philosophy is a struggle against the language which is deceiving the mind’..

On Language and Meaning

If only, I could speak in large details about all of these related subjects. I envy those ardent writers who wrote large volumes of books; and I say, ‘if only’, because, even though I have already written some books about my own philosophy of history; they all remained as incomplete works lacking some aspects of the history here and there.  Such an endeavor was a “never-ending story” which had never satisfied me. As it is said by Salomon in Ecclesiastes: ‘cunctae res difficiles non potest eas homo explicare sermone non saturatur oculus visuauris impletur auditu’ : All things are difficult and wearisome; Man is not able to tell it. The eye is not satisfied with seeing, Nor is the ear filled with hearing.’ (Ecclesiastes I-8) In short, every word is incomplete, man is not capable speaking.

Let us return to semantics   and speak once again about the language itself. I have to tell what I think about the capacity of human languages too. Here I will mention briefly my judgements about some general aspects of human languages.

For now, ı will articulate some of my ideas as short judgements only jurisdictively: human languages are not  capable of conveying truth, such as being a fully trustworthy description of living reality, because of the limits of, not only human consciousness, but also so many great flaws inherent in every human language. First of all every language categorizes things according to its own historical development and its own grammatical construction; i.e., every language describes passage of time differently. For example,  Arabic grammar has only three different time tense: past present and future (mazi,  muzari, istikbal). Yet I remember, though I can not recall the source of this saying now, once I had read that a scholar of semitic languages says that  arabic language also has ‘imperfect tense’. May be it can not be a grammatical tense but could be a way of telling an imperfect time tense with some descriptive phrases.  Anyway, Man can not understand the Time perfectly; we do not even know “what is time”, so it is only natural that human languages have many different time tenses.

Let us remember that Human languages are full of abstract, universal concepts. Man could not think if there was not any universal concept, but let us again remember that all universals are dubious like every generalization is. Sure I can not discuss at large all the arguments of platonists, realists, nominalists or conceptualists here, but universals are not really exists in the world extensionally. In addition, every human language is full of biased phrases such as judgements of intensional  logic because of the conditioning nature of every human culture. More over, a judgement of intensional logic is not valid from the perspective of logic; but perhaps 80 per cent of every human language is made up with these universals and so many biased phrases that is articulated with an intensional logic. Logical propositions should be expressed as extensional logic if it refers at all to a to a concrete thing. If so, then the linguistic descriptions are always dubious because they always distort the reality and mislead thoughts and conducts of man.

Let us add that, not only universals but every word of language might be considered deceitful because of distorting reality more or less; because a word can be only a representation of some reality, a word  is merely a metaphysical symbol  and as Semanticist Alfred Korzybsky put it :’ The map is not territory.’ Likewise, “the word is not the thing”. To name something with a word does not necessarily  imply that the referred thing, named thing, really exists either intensionally or res extensa.   A name may designate a thing, and writing also metaphorically  represents a thing. But a thing is not necessarily signified  truthfully by a linguistic name, sign or symbol. As Immanuel Kant put it: ‘the thing in itself can not be known’, we know only appearances (phenomenon). Let us also remember that, there are many criters of truth in philosophy, not only semantical or coherent  theory of truth but also many others, such as correspondence theory of truth and pragmatical, performative,  sentential  theories etc. All in all, as Salomon  put it in eccesiastes, cunctae res difficiles, non potest eas homo explicare sermone… All things are difficult and wearisome; Man is not able to tell it.

I wish to remind here the famous ‘regress argument’ of Sextus Empiricus:

‘Those who claim for themselves to judge the truth are bound to possess a criterion of truth. This criterion, then, either is without a judge’s approval or has been approved. But if it is without approval, whence comes it that it is truthworthy? For no matter of dispute is to be trusted without judging. And, if it has been approved, that which approves it, in turn, either has been approved or has not been approved, and so on ad infinitum.[4]

4. Sextus Empiricus. Against the Logicians trans. R.G. Bury (Loeb edn) (London: W. Heinemann, 1935) p. 179

Some additional remarks about art, science, philosophy, religion and mysticism

Art is art; it does not have a claim of truth, but beauty and harmony. So art is free to create something whimsically; but again, history is something else though it might be told in some art form of narration. Historian is not free to imagine historical events fictionally likewise historical novels. History in fact, is only a historiography; because the historical events themselves which occurred in the past time can not be known really and satisfactorily even by the actors of those events. Let us imagine we have sufficient knowledge about some historical events, but could we articulate and describe those events of history as satisfactory  as, for example, like Tolstoy’s War and Peace? I think,  to describe the whole series of events and people as truely as that masterpiece,  exceeded even the capacity of  human mind. Unfortunately, only through dubious historical knowledge one may  understand  little bit  what is the experience of humanity about the progress of events and their ultimate results.    I will not speak more about History  here, because, I have already published my thoughts about the epistemology of historiography in a long article; so, I think it is enough to add that article at the end of this book as an annex for the more curious reader. See annex II.

Then comes Science on the stage and it claims that the scientific subjects can be tested and being so experimental, at least “inductively” shows that the scientific claims are more trustworthy. Science is about physical nature of matter, so that, it is all about the nature and of conceivable dead matter. Whenever scientists wish to strengten their scientific arguments theoretically, they use mathematics as far as possible, because mathematical formulas are  provable; and because they depend on deductive reasoning, math is stronger than the inductive reasoning of scientific methods. Yet, ‘math is a first class metaphysic’ quote= Oswald Spengler; that means, to strenghten theoretical physic we use the metaphysical language of math though science tends to deny inconceivable metaphysical issues.

When it comes to Philosophy, first of all it means theoretical thought, and now I remember the saying of aristotle in his poetika, ‘istoria/history is all about unique special events and is not a suitable subject for making theoria; even poetry is more general than history’. Philosophers make wonderful systematic theories of everything  in a logically consistent way but all of their sayings remain in the scope of some semantical analyses of linguistic concepts. According to my judgement some magnificient  philosophical systems might be very consistently constructed, but because they use simple two valued aristotle logic as the reasoning instrument, it can not touch and understand even physical reality. Because contemporary  Quantum mechanics of physic can not compromise with  that two-valued aristotelian logic. Because as Heisenberg saidin his book “Physic and Philosophy” “imppossibility of the third option rule of logic does not apply in quantum mechanics”, that is,  even the solid matter of microphysics can not be comprehended by philosophy. Only the physics of daily life, i.e., newtonian physic, is comprehensible by the philosophers but neither quantum mechanics nor cosmology. But philosophy is all about making consistent constructions of theories though it is forced to remain in semantical realms of language. Yet it teaches one how to think and how to doubt. Even though, because of the scepticism about old systematical philosophies, contemporary philosophy also tend to be analytical and epistemological instead of being synthetical as meaningful philosophy should be.  Yet ‘philosophical principles can only be understood in their concrete expression in history”  quote tolstoy. Without enough philosophical understanding, one tends to believe everyhing without doubt. That is why without philosopical/dialectical maturity, one can not think consistently and can not doubt ideas even whenever it is surely necessary  to question them.   In short Philosophy is absolutely necessary to make you alert in front of dubious issues.

For example latins say: ‘sapiens nihil affirmat quod non probet!’  But as a very sceptical philosopher, I can doubt even mathematical proofs questioning its fundamenatal axioms or postulats; saying only two words ‘petitio principii!’ which means, ‘your fundamental principles as axioms or postulats need to be proven at first!’ If I do not accept the euclidian axiom that  ‘the shortest distance between two points is a straight line’,  though it seems very plausible and convincing to our eyes and consciousness; then the euclidian proofs of the geometry depending on that postulate collapses. That is why come into existence so many different geometries, (Lobachevsky,  Riemann, Poincare, Hilbert geoetries and so on)  beginning from the 18th century. In addition, though most of the mathematical reasoning depends on two-valued aristotelian logic and  built on consistency of mathematical reasoning, even math includes some  reasoning problems like Cantor’s famous continuum hyphothesis and Goedel’ls theorem.

As for Religion or Theology, they are very important historical beliefs of human societies which bonds individuals of society to each other as a strong instrument of social cohesion. Religion inspired men to act all together to build a civilization, it was the reason and cause of many great events of history, so a good historian should respect the religions. Grand theological explanations and constructions of a religion comes into existence in time but then this constructed theology and many different sectarian viewpoints of that theology can change or re-evaluate or sometimes reconstruct the history of its own religion. Since it is all about history of that religion and its metaphysical beliefs, in time, it might become a very developed thelogical system and discusses all the matters of humanity in its scope and methodology, sometimes logically inferring absolute results and judgements, inferring from the beliefs of the religion. Theological reasoning can make different interpretations of even core beliefs of religion for the sake of the consistency of a theological system. It seems meaningful to theologians if the discussed matter remains in the scope of those theological studies. But beliefs tend to be assured  of itself, and theologians forced to speak according to a credo, so they speak as if their belief system is an absolute truth and it can be proved logically. In fact, their arguments are only a debate, a reasoning style which uses only some inferences according to the rules aristotelian logic  about  the historical inheritence of the beliefs of a society. (In Western cİvilization and İslamic  Civilization  other civilizations  are something else),  This is why I consider some historical accounts dubious when it depends on some theological considerations. After all, a man or a society may believe anything whether it is believable or absurd, belief is neither math nor science, theology is only a sytematic knowledge of historical beliefs; so it can not be proven. After all it is possible to say “credo quia absurdum”  or as St anselm says,“credo ut intelligam”.  As my readers should have noticed, I have raised a very tough critisism even about mathematical proofs  arguing by the famous phrase ‘petitio principii’. This is why I consider some statements of historians and theologians as dubious statements; and so I do not wish to accept thelogical implications of kufic script at face value as true statements. Anyway there are many different  sectarian views of theological matters which are related with the history of the Qur’an.

There remains only Mystical Experience as a different claim of experiencing existence,  in my classification of disciplines. If one has such kind of experience, it may convince him about the trustworthines  of  some metaphysical experiences like Revealation/vahy or other extra ordinary metaphysical events. Mystical experience is not a normal daily life consciousness of humanity but an “altered state” of consciousness. There are many kinds of conscious states, and even pragmatist William James acknowledges that mystical experiences  usually make a strong and permanent imprint on the person who experience it, in his book ‘The Varities of Religious Experience’. And According To Henry Bergson,  religious beliefs of orthodoxy is the static religion as an establishment, but the mystical  interpretation of it is a dynamical religion. Great artists any mystics are aware of the illuminations coming from spiritual realms so they may have some more understanding about the claim of revelation such as Qur’an. In any way mystical experience is a different consciousness state which is an intensive experience of reality comparing to the ordinary , awaken life consciousness.

On Kufic Script, History and Philosophy of History

Indeed,  Kufic script is used primarily for writing Qur’an for centuries, but nevertheless, kufic script is seen everywhere from buildings to the instruments and even on the clothes. So the writing calligraphy had been the most formative element of islamic culture, so much so that, it is the most marked and apparent aspect of islamic civilization. From the 7th to 11th for five centuries Kufic calligraphy have been the most prominent aspect of the cultural identity of the Muslim world and it appeared as a civilization of kufic scrupture; and so, quranic verses  were visible  everyhere from the buildings to the ‘tiraz’ called  clothes. The word of God, as if embodied by the Kufic calligraphy, as if it was the incarnation of the “Kelam”(likewise logos concept of Heraclit), embodied and represented by the  solemn character of the kufic scripture of Qur’an. It appeared within every aspect of islamic culture, everywhere . This reminds me a verse from the qur’an: ‘Ve lillâhi’l-maşrıku ve’l-mağrib. Fe’eynemâ tuvellû fe-semme vechullah”: : ‘to God belong the East and the West; whithersoever you turn, there is the Face of God.

Moreover, history of the kufic  s c r i p t u r e  is a convenient and  Perfect  example,   to dispute  t h e   g e n e r a l   n a t u r e   of  historical   knowledge. In addition, surely it is possible to discuss the role of historical knowledge, semantics, human knowledge and beliefs in general; yet as I already mentioned, if we take a holistic perspective, we could debate all the related subjects about human  destiny in this context. ‘In history, everything is related with everything else!’

When I decided to write about  my kufi calligraphy and kufic scripture in general, at first I thought that this is a new opportunity to convey all of my ideas more clearly here, within the illuminating light of the kufic scrupture; but in that case, to explain and discuss so many ideas would be a never ending story which needs large book volumes. At that rate, it would be better for my short term goals to finish this essay in a short time, to write primarily about the art of kufic calligraphy, including all my kufic calligraphy designs in it.

Nevertheless, perhaps it is much better to make short statements about some  problematic aspects of the general  human knowledge whenever it seems to me suitable within this subject. Naturally, I have already read many well written books about paleography and epigraphy of the arabic script written by famous orientalists. Sure I have read many books, even some manuscripts, written by arabs, persians or turkish writers too. But I think, it is not necessary to repeat all the knowledge I have gathered from those books, all the known and unknown aspects of the subject, I will prefer to offer my interpretations whenever it seems proper to me . Anyway, naturally, this essay will include a bibliography for the more interested reader who wishes to learn more.

Let us remember some historical knowledge about arabic people and qur’an: According to muslim religion Qur’an is the word of Allah revealed by the archangel Gebrail to the prophet Mohammad. Again according to the traditional arab genealogy Muhammad was a descendant of Ishmael, the son of Abraham. Traditionally arabic people divided into two groups called adnani and kahtani, adnanis i.e.  northern arabs considered as `arab ı-musta`ribe` that is, being descendants of Ishmael, they have been `arabized arabs` and the southern arabs are called as kahtani, like yemen arabs. This is why northern arabs are called ‘The sons of Ishmael’ by the Jews. According to Bible, Abraham and Hagar’s son Ishmael has 10 children. Names of the first and second son of Ishmael given by The Old Testament seemed to me interestingly historical: Nebaioth the firstborn of Ishmael, and Kedar. The name Nebaioth seems related with  the Nabatean people, and according to paleographic and epigraphic investigations of orientalists, much widely held guess amongst them is that, arabic script comes from the Nabatean script.

Definitely, history of Kufi script also clearly shows us again the  dubious nature of the historical knowledge. Indeed whence the arabic script come from is not clear at all. There are only different predictions of some orientalists based on some relics of inscriptions.

I think these short remarks about my epistemological reasoning is enough to show my stand point in front of the kufic scripture’s historical, theological, mystical, semantical and artistical aspects. As it is said in Ecclesiastes II-8 ‘cunctae res difficiles non potest eas homo explicare sermone non saturatur oculus visu nec auris impletur auditu’: all things are hard: man cannot explain them by word. The eye is not filled with seeing, neither is the ear filled with hearing.

Thus the origins of the Arabic script have been a subject of scholarly debate for centuries. There are two main theories about its origins: The Nabataean Theory and The Musnad Theory.

The modern and most widely accepted theory is that the Arabic alphabet evolved from the Nabataean script, which itself was derived from the Aramaic alphabet. This evolution followed this path:

Phoenician alphabet → Aramaic alphabet → Nabataean Aramaic → Nabataean

Arabic → Paleo-Arabic → Classical Arabic → Modern Standard Arabic

The Nabataean script was used by the Nabataean Kingdom, which was centered in Petra (in modern-day Jordan) from around the 3rd century BCE. The Nabataeans were predominantly Arab Semitic tribes living in the area controlling trade routes from the eastern Mediterranean shores to Ḥijāz (Saudi Arabia) and Yemen. A transitional phase between the Nabataean Aramaic script and a subsequent, recognizably Arabic script, is known as Nabataean Arabic. The pre-Islamic phase of the script as it existed in the fifth and sixth centuries CE, once it had become recognizably similar to the script as it came to be known in the Islamic era, is known as Paleo-Arabic.

An alternative Musnad Theory  theory suggests that the Arabic script can be traced back to Ancient North Arabian scripts which are derived from ancient South Arabian script (Arabic: ḵaṭṭ al-musnad). This hypothesis has been discussed by Arabic scholars Ibn Jinni and Ibn Khaldun. Some scholars, like Ahmed Sharaf Al-Din, have argued that the relationship between the Arabic alphabet and the Nabataeans is only due to the influence of the latter after its emergence (from Ancient South Arabian script). Arabic has a one-to-one correspondence with ancient South Arabian script except for one letter. German historian Max Muller (1823-1900) thought the Phoenician script was adapted from Musnad during the 9th century BCE when the Minaean Kingdom of Yemen controlled areas of the Eastern Mediterranean shores. Syrian scholar Shakīb ´Arsalān shares this view.

In history we do not know what happened in the past, but we know only historical documents and relics. Once I was speaking on history at ISAM (islamic research center), then I had compared all historical remnants to the famous poetry of Imru al Qays ,” kıfâ nebki min zikrâ habîbî ve menzili”: “Let’s stop here and cry, remembering the beloved and our home town, the distance she passed through”. That is, all we have only historical remnants; they are solely some relics of the past events. Looking at them, we try to imagine those past events just like Imru al Qays imagines and remembers his beloved looking at the relics of camel caravan. Knowledge about historical remnants can be a science and could be investigated by scientific methods since they are existing material objects. This is the only scientific aspect of history.

In fact we do not know for sure whence arabic script come from. These are only  some  predictive arguments of orientalists that it might come from the nabatean script, according to  other orientalists, it might be a developed form of musnad script still others guess that arabic script influenced by syriac. There are even definitively  different tendencies preferences of one or other vıew according to  different  echols like french, german or british ecols of orientalists. In fact, the kufi script and arabic script and history of arabs in general is a perfect example of  the  dubious feature  of all historical knowledge. As Will Durant beautifully articulated in  his book, “The Lessons of History”,“To begin with, do we really know what the past was, what actually happened, or is history ‘a fable’ not quite ‘agreed upon’?” Our knowledge of any past event is always incomplete, probably inaccurate, beclouded by ambivalent evidence and biased historians, and perhaps distorted by our own patriotic or religious partisanship. Most history is guessing, and the rest is prejudice.” Napoleon phrased it more wittily  which probably W. Durant alludes: “ what is history but a fable agreed upon!”

Let us quote Napoleon once more:  “Since history is not an objective reality, but only an imaginative reconstruction of vanished events, the pattern that appears useful and agreeable to one generation is never entirely so to the next.”

But history itself as past events has passed away and gone for ever and what is known as historical narration is only a historiography which is what we try to understand and narrate about past events based on interperetations of those relics. As W. Durant beautifully articulated: “ Obviously historiography cannot be a science. It can only be an industry, an art, and a philosophy- an industry by ferreting out the facts, an art by establishing a meaningful order in the chaos of materials, a philosophy by seeking perspective and enlightenment. In philosophy we try to see the part in the light of the whole; in the ‘the philosophy of history’ we try to see this moment in the light of the past. We know that in both cases this is a counsel of perfection; total perspective is an optical illusion. We do not know the whole of man’s history; there were probably many civilizations before the Sumerian or the Egyptian; we have just began to dig! We must operate with partial knowledge, and be provisionally content with probabalities; in history, as in science and politics, relativity rules, and all formulas should be suspect. ‘History smiles at all attempts to force its flow into theoretical patterns or logical grooves; it plays havoc with our generalizations, breaks our rules; history is baroque.’ Perhaps, within these limits, we can learn enough from history to bear reality patiently, and to respect one another’s delusions.” L H

Then, Historical knowledge about all the historical relics becomes dubious if historical understanding changes according to the historian’s interpretation= and taste; theerefore it can only become an art or a philosophy of history. I have already written elsewhere about epistemological value of historiography, in  “the quest of meaning throghout time”, implying that historical narration is only a conjectural belief about some historical events:

“Historian has to imagine the flow of events in history, that is, how could it be possible that the river of events have been formed and taken a special river-bearing for the course of events which might have been flowed. It is so hard to describe this awakened dream of consciousness – this self deceptive imagination of historian – that I cannot help but repeat that strong statement of the Antiquarian’s view of history, “sans aultre preuve que de simples conjectures dece qui pouvoit avoir este”: “it is only a guess, simply a conjectured belief without proof, since we can conceive that it was possible to occur (as implied by our imagination); then, presumably in any case, it really had happened so.” I will not repeat all of my epistemological analysis written in this essay but simply repeat one more paragraph from that essay:

That is, a historical event could be, at most, an ‘imaginatively constructed and believed’ explanation of a historian. There remains only this ‘ratio credentis’: we might believe a historian on the basis of his professional authority.

If so, what are the ends aimed by historiography? and what  could be the justifications of historiography?  It is to narrate illustratively in a proper form what might have been discovered about history by the research and imagination of historians as meaningfully stated by the aforesaid Antiquarian.  And historians always try to write history as they imagine: that is, they try to change the past according to their wishful thinking and ideology. This is also a ridiculous and whimsical wish: they try to convince some people that according to their imagined version of the story of the past is definitely true. A historical evidence cannot give any sufficient and necessary reason to prove that the indicated event is true, merely for the reason of being reported and described by it: although it might seem a strong evidence, there could be no ‘ratio veritatis’, not any proven justification that ‘the event’ had actually occurred ‘definitely as it has been told’ by that official document, witness, historian or whatsoever. We can always suspect and deny its reliability.

As stated by stephen J shoemaker: ‘Historians are rarely able to prove absolutely that something did happen, or did not happen, particularly for matters of great antiquity or when dealing with the formative history of a particular community, which is often a very active site of shifting memories.’ C.k.P.38

‘Taking little bits out of a great many books which no one has ever read, and putting them together in one book which no one ever will read’ quote carl becker. And There is cynical saying which I do not remember which historian said that: ‘history does not exists until a historian writes it’.

But actual historical events can not be known even by whom who experienced them. I will quote here from Carl Becker again: xx

‘No doubt throughout all past time there actually occurred a series of events which, whether we know what it was or not, constitutes history in some ultimate sense. Nevertheless, much the greater part of these events we can know nothing about, not even that they occurred; many of them we can know only imperfectly; and even the few events that we think we know for sure we can never be absolutely certain of, since we can never revive them, never observe or test them directly. The event itself once occurred, but as an actual event it has disappeared; so that in dealing with it the only objective reality we can observe or test is some material trace which the event has left—usually a written document. With these traces of vanished events, these documents, we must be content since they are all we have; from them we infer what the event was, we affirm that it is a fact that the event was so and so. ‘

https://cooperative-individualism.org/becker-carl_what-is-historiography-1938-oct.pdf

In fact, what we know about history of arabs, arabic script, prophet muhammad and Qur’an and all of the other stories related with the first  century of islamic history is all secondhand knowledge inferred from the traditional hearsayings of historical sources and relics which are not contemporary of prophet Muhammad but the remnants from the second and third century of İslam. We do not have any authentical relic which was contemporary with prophet Muhammad. Of course we can not know actual series of historical events. History in itself can not be known, historical knowledge is something else as historiography, an art form which is a narration of the past events as imagined -gathered information which depends on all kinds of historical sources- and told by a historian. This is why Voltaire cynically says: ‘little bit more than what is said by a scriber to another secreatary.’ Suppose we would have satisfactorily enough and true knowledge about the flow of historical events, are we sure that we could understand the essence of living reality by some descriptive narration.  In history, we can never be sure of the truthfullness of statements made by a  contemporary observer of events or written by a historian about an event; it can not be proved like mathematical statements and obviously can not be tested like scientific materials. Anyway, an art of narration might be beatiful but  could not claim that all its statements are true.  Here again, for the sake of clarity, I am forced to show my classification of disciplines, at least  in short, to explain my highly sceptical attitudes towards the matters related with the kufic scripture, its history and some linguistic, philosophical and theological implications of the subject. As quoted from a poet by Aviezer Tucker in his introduction to  A Companion to The Philosophy of History and Historiography: Perhaps we are…

‘Still in the earliest days of history

When the world existed only in theory . . .’   A.c.p h h

The Historical Origins and Paleographic Development of the Kufic Script

To explore the history of the Kufic script is not merely to trace the formal evolution of a writing style. It also raises critical questions of historiography and epistemology. The origins of writing, its transformations, the contexts of its use, and the aesthetic choices it entails are shaped not only by material evidence but also by historical assumptions, intellectual frameworks, and interpretive narratives. 

The historical origins of the Kufic script are not limited to the linear evolution of the Arabic script; they also reflect a broader cultural, political, and theological transformation. The development of Kufic writing corresponds with a rapidly evolving epistemological and aesthetic quest in the wake of Islam’s emergence. As a script, Kufic embodies the early Muslim community’s dual concern: preserving the Qur’anic revelation with precision and imparting to it a form of solemnity and visual dignity.

Because I do not wish to write a large book volume about the Paleography of Arabic script like many  orientalists have done before me, I will only mention here some good sources -which could be easily reachable on the  internet-  about  the history of “arabic people, arabic inscriptions, arabic script and kufic scripture etc.

I will give here some examples from the nabatean script and some other arabic inscriptions discovered by archeologists. There are some websites on internet which shows all the arabic inscriptions and scripts including new archeological discoveries, such as:

Digital archive for the study of pre islamic arabian inscriptions

https://dasi.cnr.it/

https://corpuscoranicum.de/en

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Arabic_inscriptions

https://www.islamic-awareness.org/history/islam/inscriptions

Nabatean script in ümmü’ l-cimal gravestone of

I do not wish to convey all the historical information to my reader which I have gathered from the books of orientalists and muslım sholars; rather, I wish to interperete some aspects of the kufic scripture which are related with those different perspectives whenever it seems to me imperative. This is why I have spoken about my epistemological standpoint about all the differing perspectives of different disciplines. For example, we have so many historical  relics of arabic scripts as inscriptions, papyruses, manuscripts written on parshomen and later on coins minted by umayyads and  buildings which includes inscriptions like the Rock of Dome which its is ornamented by  kufic calligraphy.  It seems that scholars can never agree about these issues: What is the origin of arabic people, arabic language, arabic script, and kufic script all seems dubious because of the many differing interpretations of historians. It seems to me so confusing that ı guess  those paleographic and epigraphic studies about so many comparable data could only be analyzed by usıng artificial intelligence.

For now I will repeat What Wordsworth said once:

Enough of science and of art
Close up those barren leaves
Come forth and bring with you a hearth
That watches and receives.

In pre-Islamic Arab societies, writing was a limited skill practiced within narrow circles, primarily used for commercial contracts, epitaphs, and occasionally for recording poetry. With the revelation of the Qur’an, however, writing underwent a qualitative transformation. The need to preserve and disseminate the divine message necessitated the standardization and refinement of the script.

How could we watch and receive, and understand the meaning of the kufic calligraphy? What is the importance of kufic script and what is the aesthetical value of it? First of all there was not a developed arabic script in the age of Prophet whether it was coming from nabatean script, or lakhmids  or influenced by syriac writing; it was surely a distant  relative or perhaps  the last descendant of the phoenician alhabet. That  script was not an alphabet but   an abcad (consonantal alphabet with no vowels)   which has only 18 signs of letter to write 28 letters.  Remaining letters would be written with the same sign which are differientated by some dots when the script developed enough to write arabic correctly later in the age of abdülmelik ibni mervan. 

Kufi script was the oldest and most significant style of Arabic script, the  most formative visual art of islam, so much so that, islamic civilization has become a  civilization of scripture, a kufic calligraphy civilization. In christianity jesus considered as an incarnation of god, phrased sometimes as the son of  god or Word of  god. Likewise Kufi calligraphy was the incarnation of the Word of God (because qur’an itself considered Word of  God being intermittently revealed by Gebrail, Qur’anic verses could be considered as if they are some  verses from  the heavenly guarded book of destiny, levh-i mahfuz.

From the first it was not an ordinary script but a holy sicrupture of  mushaf(book), the sacred scripture of Qur’an;  kufi itself came into existence  and developed because of the  Qur’an. Otherwise, it was an unpractical and undeveloped script perhaps  rarely used by a few merchants. Arabic sources say there was only about 30 people in Mecca who knew writing and  some of them have been employed by the prophet as scripts of revelation. In fact, arabs had a predominantly oral culture before Qur’an and did not like writing at all, they have only poetry as literature but it also is preferred to be transferred and recited by heart. Anyhow there was no arabic script developed enough for written books. Even Qur’an means recited aloud verses, it is not a book but qur’an, not compiled in the time of prophet and preferred to be recited by heart. I am not going into details of the  discussions about how Qur’an became  a suhuf (compiled surahs and verses of Qur’an between two cover likewise a book at the time of the first caliph ebubekir. But arabic script is not an alphabet, it is an Abcad; that is, it shows only consonants of the words  and even though there are 28 consonants only 18 of the consonants has different sign symbols, remaining consonants would be shown by addition of different points later on, but even at the time of Osman  there was no point either.  At the time of Abdülmelik b. Mervan  some points and  signs of vowels added to these letters to make reading easier and correct.That is to say, if only there was some rudimentary arabic script  used rarely at the time of prophet and there was not a developed arabic script at that time; that means, both arabic script and arabic language grammer owe their development to the goal of writing the Qur’an. Later on thıs script would be named kufic script.

Here is an example of inscription from the time of Muaviye which shows already angular and rectilinear character of kufi style, because it is only natural and easy to use straight lines to be engraved on the hard surface of a rock: 

The translation of the inscription is:

1. This dam [belongs] to servant of God Muʿāwiya,
2. Commander of the believers. ʿAbdullāh b. Ṣakhr built it
3. with the permission of Allāh, in the year fifty eight. O
4. Allāh, pardon servant of God Muʿāwiya, c-
5. Commander of the believers, and strengthen him, and make him victorious, and grant the
6. Commander of the believers the enjoyment of it. ʿAmr b. Ḥabbab wrote [it].

Location

Near Ṭa’if in the Ḥijaz, Saudi Arabia.

Excerpted From the islamic-awareness.org

The name “Kufic” is derived from the city of Kūfa in Iraq—an important intellectual and political center during the early Islamic period. Yet the term denotes more than a geographic origin; it signifies a particular aesthetic discipline and scriptural tradition. Compared with the more cursive and rounded Ḥijāzī script used in the Arabian Peninsula, Kufic is characterized by angularity, symmetry, and a structurally rigorous order.

Here is the  inscription which could be called as an example of kufic script because of its rectilinear and angular letters. But those caharacteristics come from the natural difficulty of engraving some letters on a hard surface of the rock. This is the easiest way to engrave an inscription on a rock. Because to engrave a cursive letters on a rock would be much harder.

If the only defining caharacter of kufic calligraphy is to be rectilinear and angular, then this inscription also seems to be an example of kufic script.  The kufi is the general name of scripts which have rectilinear and angular shapes of letters and there was not any strict rule of proportion or any specific shaping style of any letter until the emergence of other calligraphic styles. Later calliigraphic letters somewhat resembles contemporary typography; that is, every letter would be written always in the same shape and proportion. In fact there is not any rule for kufic calligraphy except seeming more angular and rectilenear shape if compared to other cursive hand writings. Kufi was the general name of calligraphy for centuries until the emergence of other calligraphic styles at 11th century. In fact the name as “kufic calligraphy” also is a misnomer ascribed too many different kufi styles and to the city of Kûfe. I do not wish to repeat what is written about arabic paleography and calligraphy, though they might be important from the perspective of some scholarly investigations and debates but it seems to me useless to repeat them here  all those dubious and confusing statemens. Scholars have given every different handwriting style a name making comparisons between the extant manuscripts; they speak about mekki, medeni, hicazi, basri, kufi etc. Supposedly kufi developed in kufe city and hence the misnomer kufi comes. Sure there is a majestiik geometrical style which is used to be called kufi as we can see written on the  parshomen manuscripts of Qur’an which conveys the  sacredness of the word of Allah within the awesome beauty of mystical kufic style; but how do you know that it is developed particularly in Kufe city? And what this misnomer name kufi designates anyway. There are many different styles of kufi in history; which one you mean by the name kufi ?

Sheila S. Blair suggests that “the name Kufic was introduced to Western scholarship by Jacob George Christian Adler(1756–1834)”.[5]5Blair, Sheila S. (2006). Islamic Calligraphy. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-7486-1212-3.

More interested reader can learn what is said about kufi calligraphy in  old islamic sources by reading the first chapter of the book “İslam Kültür Mirasında Hat Sanatı ”  written by Nihad M. Çetin, published by IRCICA. Some scholars say arabic script comes from Müsned/ himyeri, others say it comes from nabatean script still others speak about syriac influence. All these debates involve in a certain amount of guesswork. Same is the case with the misnomer “kufic”. They name some styles according to the supposed geographical centers they have been related; namely , mekki, medeni, hicazi, kufi etc. In fact these names designates only different hand-writing styles of the scripts. “Naming” should help for cognition and understanding, but  it does not necessarily imply a concrete thing and becomes confusing sometimes. I think all of those confusing paleographic, epigraphic  and calligraphic discuscussions would  be transferred to an AI agent to analize them. Yet, it is used to be referred by  the name kufi calligraphy altough this form of art does not include any strict rule of calligraphic measures if compared to the letters of the so-called “aklamı sitte” / “six kind of pen” which is developed later on at the 11th century.

Here is the description given about first manuscripts in the Fihrist (Index of Books) of the Baghdadi

bibliographer al‐Nadim, written in 987:

The first Arabic scripts were the Meccan and after that the Madinan, then the Basran, then the Kufan. As regards the Meccan and Madinan, there is in its [sic] alifs a bend to the right hand side and an elevation of the vertical strokes; and in its form, there is a slight inclination…

During the early Islamic period, the Arabic script was still in a relatively primitive state. It lacked diacritical marks (dots) to distinguish between similar letters and had no vowel markings. This made reading difficult, especially for non-native Arabic speakers as Islam spread beyond the Arabian Peninsula. The third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644-656 CE), commissioned the first official compilation of the Quran, establishing a standard text. This project necessitated improvements in the writing system to ensure accurate preservation of the sacred text. Under the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE), significant developments occurred: Introduction of Diacritical Marks: Abu al-Aswad al-Du’ali (d. 688 CE) is traditionally credited with introducing dots to distinguish between similar letters. Vowel Notation System: A system of colored dots was developed to indicate short vowels, which are not normally written in Arabic.Standardization: The script became more standardized as it was used for administrative purposes throughout the expanding Islamic empire.These innovations were crucial for preserving the correct recitation of the Quran and facilitating the spread of Arabic literacy among non-Arab converts to Islam.

The mention of inclined letters makes the reference to this primitive corpus unambiguous. But how widespread were the denominations “Meccan” and “Madinan” in al‐Nadim’s lifetime, and how long had they been in existence by then? Were they meant to encompass all of the earliest Qurʾanic scripts, or specific tendencies within them? Al‐Nadim does not elaborate on the subject or cite his sources. “(6)

https://talalchami.wordpress.com/2018/12/18/the-development-of-the-arabic-script-in-the-4th-and-5th-century-nabatean-roots-of-a-medium/

Although the Qur’anic codices produced during the caliphate of ʿUthmān may not yet have been called “Kufic” in the strict sense, they represent a foundational stage in its development. These early codices were devoid of diacritical marks and vowel signs—a fact that, given Arabic’s polysemic nature, often resulted in interpretive ambiguities. This challenge prompted the gradual elaboration of a more precise writing system.

The Umayyad period witnessed the introduction of diacritical markings by Abū al-Aswad al-Duʾalī, followed by the work of al-Khalīl ibn Aḥmad, who further developed the dotting system. These innovations significantly improved the clarity and functionality of the Arabic script, reinforcing the role of Kufic script in the preservation and transmission of the Qur’an.

By the 8th and 9th centuries, Kufic was no longer confined to Qur’anic manuscripts. It began to appear across various media—architecture, coinage, ceramics, textiles, and metalwork. This diversification indicates that Kufic had become both a functional script and a symbolic medium. It evolved into an aesthetic form that could be seen, touched, and integrated into space.

During the Abbasid period, the institutionalization of calligraphy as an art form played a decisive role in the maturation of Kufic script. Major cultural centers such as Baghdad, Kūfa, and Baṣra saw the emergence of scriptoria and schools dedicated to its development. Various regional and functional styles of Kufic began to emerge, including Eastern Kufic (mashriqī), Western Kufic (maghribī), Square Kufic (murabbaʿ), and ornamental Kufic, among others. Each variant reflects specific cultural and aesthetic evolutions of the script.

From a paleographic perspective, studying the transformation of Kufic script offers critical insights into the broader history of writing. Early Qur’anic manuscripts typically feature large letters and generous spacing between lines. Over time, the script became more compact, stylistically elaborate, and enriched with decorative elements. These changes reflect not only technical innovations but also shifts in aesthetic sensibilities, religious consciousness, and political symbolism.

In sum, Kufic script emerged from within the Arabic script tradition but soon transcended it, becoming a multi-layered cultural form that conveyed the sacred and aesthetic codes of Islamic civilization. Its paleographic evolution mirrors the broader transformation of Islamic societies—their values, modes of expression, and approaches to textuality. Thus, Kufic is not merely a relic of the past; it is one of the clearest indicators of how the written word has functioned historically as a bearer of faith, art, and identity.

The Aesthetic Structure and Geometric Principles of the Kufic Script

The aesthetic structure of the Kufic script cannot be adequately understood by its visual characteristics alone. Rather, it constitutes a deeply layered artistic system intertwined with Islamic conceptions of tawḥīd (divine unity), mathematical order, and the visual articulation of the sacred. Kufic does more than convey the meanings of words—it transfigures them into visual embodiments of divine beauty through formal language. Its structural logic is shaped not only by the manner in which letters are drawn, but by the philosophical and visual framework within which they are composed.

Structural Geometry and the Modular System

Kufic script is grounded in principles of proportion and measurement. At its core lies a structural discipline based on fixed unit modules—typically defined by nukṭa, or dots created by the nib of the reed pen. The nukṭa serves as the foundational unit that determines the height, width, and spacing of letters.

Because every letter is constructed from these basic units, Kufic exhibits an architectural, even mathematical quality before it evokes aesthetic sensibilities. For example, the alif is rendered as a vertical stroke three dots in height, while the letter mīm may consist of a five-dot-wide and three-dot-high horizontal arc. These measurements produce proportional coherence across the script, generating rhythmic harmony in the entire composition.

This geometric rigor brings Kufic into conceptual alignment with Ibn Muqlah’s theory of al-khaṭṭ al-mansūb(“proportioned script”), although the theory was more explicitly applied to rounded scripts like thuluth and naskh. Still, Kufic shares this underlying mathematical discipline, presenting itself not merely as an artistic gesture, but as the result of an intellectually structured design system.

Symmetry, Rhythm, and Repetition

The visual power of Kufic script derives largely from its symmetrical arrangements, repetitive letterforms, and linear rhythm. The consistent height of most letters lends the script a horizontal continuity that is particularly striking when inscribed across architectural façades or carved into monumental panels. This horizontal axis generates a sacred sense of flow—a textual current across spatial surfaces.

Symmetry manifests at both the micro and macro levels. Internally, each letter or word exhibits linear coherence; externally, entire blocks of text form harmonized visual entities. This orderliness corresponds with central values in Islamic art: centrality, moderation, and equilibrium. The repeated use of letterforms lends the script a modular character, making it highly adaptable for architectural ornamentation, textiles, and ceramics.

Spatial Adaptation and Surface Integration

One of the most remarkable aspects of Kufic script is its capacity for spatial adaptability. Rather than conforming to a fixed form, Kufic can be modified to suit the geometrical constraints of any surface. Whether adorning the circumference of a dome or the arch of a miḥrāb, Kufic compositions are uniquely tailored to their architectural contexts—even when the underlying text remains the same.

This responsiveness makes Kufic “a script that speaks with space.” It is not a mere conveyor of textual meaning, but a visual language integrated with architectural expression. In particular, the square Kufic style (murabbaʿ) reconfigures letters into grid-based modules, weaving the script into the very fabric of the surface. In this form, Kufic is not simply legible—it is perceivable, immersive, and spatially performative.

Abstraction, Meaning, and Cognitive Visualization

Another defining aesthetic quality of Kufic script is its capacity for formal abstraction. The angular, uncurved, and minimal nature of its letters enhances its symbolic and meditative potency. Kufic, therefore, is not only read; it is also intuited, contemplated, and visualized. In highly decorative forms, the letters may become so abstract as to resist immediate recognition. This abstraction invites a spiritual mode of perception and transforms writing into an object of contemplation.

In this regard, Kufic becomes the ideal medium for visualizing the sacred in a cultural context that prohibits figural representation. Its geometric order functions as a form of visual dhikr (remembrance). For both Sufi aesthetics and classical Islamic calligraphy, this kind of writing is not merely an art—it is a devotional act.

Craftsmanship, Discipline, and Technical Mastery

Executing Kufic script requires not only artistic sensibility but also technical mastery. Each letter must be drawn according to strict proportional standards to preserve the visual coherence of the script. The calligrapher must be endowed with precision, patience, mathematical competence, and an inner aesthetic sense.

In Qur’anic manuscript production, the demands of Kufic calligraphy extend to page layout, line alignment, and the visual hierarchy of letters. In this sense, Kufic writing is not merely a visual art—it is also a cognitive discipline grounded in mathematical and spatial reasoning.

Kufic script should thus be seen not as a simple calligraphic form, but as a visual logic that encapsulates the aesthetics of Islamic thought. With its modular grid, symmetrical organization, spatial adaptability, abstraction, and demanding execution, Kufic represents one of the most refined visual languages in the Islamic tradition—one that speaks simultaneously to mind and soul. In Kufic, form is not a vessel for meaning—it is meaning itself, sacredness itself, and beauty made visible.

Kufic Script in Architecture, Craft, and Everyday Life

Kufic script was never confined to Qur’anic manuscripts or religious texts alone; it evolved into a versatile and ubiquitous form of writing that permeated nearly every sphere of Islamic civilization. Through this multifaceted application, Kufic functioned not only as a symbolic expression but also as a functional medium—translating the sacred into architecture and imbuing ordinary objects with aesthetic and metaphysical depth. This section explores the wide spectrum of Kufic’s applications, from monumental architecture to ceramics, textiles, and metalwork.

Kufic on Architectural Surfaces

In Islamic architecture, Kufic script served not merely a decorative function but also carried theological and political significance. It adorned the arches, domes, mihrabs, façades, and friezes of mosques, tombs, madrasas, palaces, and caravanserais. The presence of Kufic script sanctified the space it inhabited, transforming it into what may be called an “āyātic space”—a space articulated through verses.

The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (691 CE) presents one of the earliest and most impressive examples of monumental Kufic. The inscriptions on its interior and exterior walls contain Qur’anic verses that establish the building not only as a sacred site but also as a visual proclamation of Islamic theology. These inscriptions convey not just information, but identity, sovereignty, and the declaration of tawḥīd.

Similar applications can be found in the Great Mosque of Córdoba in al-Andalus, in Seljuk-era mosques in Iran, and in the mausolea of the Karakhanids in Central Asia. In all these examples, Kufic is more than a decorative script—it becomes an architectural utterance, turning stone into speech and surface into meditation.

Kufic on Ceramics and Everyday Objects

From the Abbasid period onward, Kufic script was widely used on ceramic ware, particularly in regions like Sāmarrāʾ, Kāshān, and Nīshāpūr. Ceramic bowls, plates, and cups were frequently inscribed with short phrases, blessings, or religious expressions in Kufic: al-baraka (“blessing”), al-ʿizz li-ṣāḥibihi (“glory to its owner”), al-baqāʾ (“permanence”).

Such use reflects how Kufic script extended beyond elite manuscripts and monuments into the intimate sphere of domestic life. It adorned the objects of daily use, suggesting that religious and cultural identity were lived experiences, woven into the routines of everyday existence.

Kufic in Textile Arts: The Ṭirāz Fabrics

One of the most intriguing applications of Kufic script was in textiles, especially in the production of ṭirāz—luxurious fabrics woven or embroidered with inscriptions, often commissioned by rulers. These fabrics served not only as garments but as symbols of status, authority, and political legitimacy.

The bands of ṭirāz frequently included the name of the caliph or sultan, the year of production, and sometimes short invocations or benedictions, all executed in Kufic script. These textiles functioned as wearable declarations of loyalty, making the script an embodied political message—wrapping the wearer in both literal and symbolic allegiance.

Kufic in Metalwork

Kufic script also played a significant role in Islamic metalwork. It appeared on lamps, basins, spearheads, helmets, rings, trays, and bowls. Particularly noteworthy are coins minted by the Umayyads and Abbasids, many of which bear Kufic inscriptions in place of figural imagery.

The preference for Kufic in coinage reflects both aesthetic restraint and theological intent. These inscriptions often included the shahāda, the caliph’s name, the mint, and the date of issue—thus transforming the coin into a mobile, state-sanctioned declaration of religious and political authority.
Kufic in Book Arts and Qur’anic Manuscripts

During the first three centuries of Islam, the vast majority of Qur’anic manuscripts were written in Kufic script. These manuscripts conveyed not only the textual content of the Qur’an but also the visual reverence due to the sacred word. The lack of vowelization and diacritical marks in early manuscripts required readers to engage deeply with the script, fostering a meditative relationship between text and viewer.

The Blue Qur’an—dating to the 9th or 10th century and written in gold Kufic on indigo-dyed parchment—is a celebrated example. This manuscript was not merely intended for reading; it was meant to be seen, contemplated, and approached as a visual encounter with the divine. The spacing of letters, page composition, line alignment, and chromatic symbolism all reflect a sacred architectural aesthetic.

Contemporary Reinterpretations of Kufic

In the modern period, Kufic script has transcended its traditional contexts to find new life in graphic design, digital art, architecture, textile design, and jewelry. The square Kufic form, in particular, has become popular in contemporary typographic design for its minimalist and modular elegance.

In jewelry design, Kufic lends both aesthetic refinement and symbolic resonance. In contemporary architecture—especially in mosques or Islamic art-inspired buildings—Kufic motifs have been reintegrated into façades and interior surfaces, signaling continuity with Islamic heritage through a modern idiom.

Kufic script, then, constitutes a cultural language within Islamic civilization. It has endowed structures with sanctity, objects with meaning, fabrics with authority, metals with political identity, and manuscripts with contemplative depth. With its rich functionality, Kufic is more than a writing system; it is a semantic, symbolic, and political medium. Even today, this legacy finds renewed expression through contemporary forms. Kufic persists as a visual memory composed of silent letters—letters that continue to echo across history.

Symbolic, Political, and Spiritual Interpretations of the Kufic Script

Kufic script in Islamic civilization is not merely a form of calligraphy; it is a cultural language layered with symbolic, political, and spiritual depth. Through the shape of letters, their spatial arrangement, and the surfaces upon which they are inscribed, Kufic has been linked to metaphors of divine power, wisdom, and sanctity. It has functioned simultaneously as a vehicle of authority and a medium of spiritual contemplation.

Kufic as Symbol: Power, Wisdom, and Eternity

The angular and solid structure of Kufic letters lends them a commanding presence, marked by strength, clarity, and timelessness. Particularly in miḥrābs, domes, and monumental inscriptions above entrances, Kufic calligraphy projects an aura that extends beyond its physical surface, embodying a visual metaphor of transcendence.

Its bold lines and expansive horizontality create a sense of dominion and stability—associating the script not only with the Divine Word but with the permanence and majesty of civilization itself. Circular compositions of Kufic inscriptions often invoke the notion of infinity, while their symmetry and repetition gesture toward the divine order of the cosmos. Kufic thus becomes a visual theology: the geometry of the eternal expressed in form.
Kufic as a Political Instrument

One of the most salient functions of Kufic script throughout Islamic history has been its role in representing political legitimacy. Especially during the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates, Kufic replaced figural imagery in architecture and coinage, becoming a textual emblem of sovereignty.

The shahāda or the caliph’s name inscribed in Kufic on coins was not simply a declarative statement; it was a political manifesto. Likewise, the inscriptions on the Dome of the Rock did not only proclaim Qur’anic verses—they visually articulated Islam’s universal claim and the finality of the Prophet Muhammad’s message. These Kufic inscriptions are textual-symbolic systems that integrate architectural grandeur with political discourse.

The use of Kufic on ṭirāz textiles also functioned as a symbolic assertion of authority. When the name of a caliph was inscribed in Kufic and worn on the body, it signaled the internalization of political power both physically and metaphysically. Kufic thus became a public text circulating through garments—rendering the script an embodied expression of allegiance.

Kufic as a Spiritual Practice

The spiritual dimension of Kufic is among its most profound aspects. To inscribe the Qur’an in Kufic is not merely to transmit text; it is to engage in a contemplative practice. The script’s austerity, silence, and rhythmic form invite meditative observation. Kufic is not merely read—it is watched, pondered, and absorbed.

The classical master of calligraphy Ibn al-Bawwāb famously treated calligraphy as a moral discipline, associating the act of writing with patience, spiritual purification, and inner equilibrium. In Sufi traditions, writing is often seen as a veil of the outward (ẓāhir) that gestures toward the inward (bāṭin). Each letter, in this view, is not merely a phonetic marker but a symbolic trace of divine intention.

Kufic thus becomes a spiritual tool, frequently appearing in hilyas (descriptive texts about the Prophet), calligraphic panels, tomb architecture, and Sufi iconography. Its repetition, geometric stylization, and abstraction create a visual dhikr (remembrance) that bridges mind and spirit.

The Silent Eloquence of Script

Kufic is visually silent yet conceptually resonant. The silence of its linear form evokes quietude, yet it speaks volumes through suggestion and allusion. The reader must look beyond the letterforms to intuit the meanings they encase.

Ibn al-ʿArabī’s theory of the ontology of letters is again pertinent: letters are the primordial images of being. Each letter is a name, each name a reality, and each reality a mode of divine manifestation. Kufic’s minimalist form is, therefore, the ideal vessel for metaphysical density. In this sense, form is both the veil and the proof of meaning.

Contemporary Symbolism and Artistic Reappropriation

Today, Kufic script continues to operate as a symbolic register across diverse media. In contemporary art, public installations, and digital platforms, its geometric minimalism has found renewed resonance. Square Kufic in particular has become a favored mode for artists seeking to express identity, resistance, and spiritual depth.

Artists such as eL Seed (Tunisia), A1one (Iran), and Yazan Halwani (Lebanon) have reimagined Kufic within the context of “calligraffiti,” blending traditional Arabic calligraphy with street art. Their works animate Kufic in urban environments, transforming it into a global symbol of cultural memory, resilience, and defiant beauty.

Kufic script, then, has throughout its history mediated between the visible and the invisible, the temporal and the eternal. It symbolizes divine power while inviting humility; it conveys political messages while cultivating spiritual stillness. Every letter carries a message, and every form tells a story. To study Kufic is not merely to analyze a calligraphic tradition, but to engage with the intellectual, political, and spiritual imagination of an entire civilization.

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,Contemporary Interpretations and the Role of Kufic in Modern Art

Rooted in deep historical tradition, Kufic script has nonetheless evolved into a dynamic artistic form with new expressive possibilities in the contemporary world. The aesthetic and technological conditions of the modern age have demonstrated that Kufic is not merely a relic of the past but a living form—capable of being reinterpreted, recontextualized, and reimagined. This section examines the presence of Kufic script in today’s art world across multiple domains, including modern art, architecture, graphic design, and digital media.

The Reinterpretation of Kufic in Contemporary Art

Since the mid-20th century, renewed interest in Islamic art has inspired artists to rediscover Kufic script as both a formal and conceptual resource. In countries such as Iran, Turkey, Morocco, Lebanon, and Pakistan, artists have engaged with the geometric logic of Kufic in dialogue with abstract modernist aesthetics. These reinterpretations are not limited to preservation; they aim to generate new layers of meaning.

Among the various styles, square Kufic (murabbaʿ) has gained popularity for its compatibility with minimalist design principles. Kufic script here functions not only as a textual vehicle but as a compositional element, where form itself communicates as powerfully as content. Letters are treated not just as symbols, but as abstract units of visual language.

Calligraffiti: The Fusion of Calligraphy and Street Art

Beginning in the 1980s, a new artistic genre emerged from within the Arab and Islamic diaspora—“calligraffiti.” This movement blended traditional calligraphy with Western graffiti culture, producing a unique visual vocabulary that engages with urban spaces.

Artists such as eL Seed (Tunisia), A1one (Iran), and Yazan Halwani (Lebanon) have used Kufic script in murals, tunnels, and train cars, infusing the city with sacred geometry. Kufic thus becomes a medium of artistic resistance, cultural reclamation, and social commentary. These works are not only seen but experienced as public expressions of identity and faith.

Kufic in Architecture and Industrial Design

The geometric structure of Kufic, with its balanced horizontals and verticals, makes it an ideal system for contemporary architecture. It is frequently used in the façades and interior design of mosques, cultural centers, and museums—where Kufic motifs become central aesthetic elements.

Square Kufic is particularly effective in modular repetition, lending rhythm and continuity to architectural surfaces. Likewise, in furniture, lighting, and textile design, stylized Kufic inscriptions are used to infuse everyday objects with symbolic resonance.

Digital Calligraphy and AI-Assisted Kufic Design

As digital technologies evolve, Kufic script has entered new creative territories. Vector-based software, parametric design tools, and augmented reality platforms allow Kufic forms to be manipulated, animated, and visualized in previously unthinkable ways.

Some artists now employ AI systems that analyze the geometry of Kufic letters to generate novel compositions. This fusion of tradition and technology situates Kufic within experimental, cross-disciplinary art practices. It emerges not only as a design element but as a node in digital memory and computational creativity.

Cultural Memory and the Aesthetic of Resistance

In the contemporary context, Kufic script also functions as a repository of cultural memory and a mode of resistance—especially for Muslim artists in the West. In the face of Islamophobia, cultural erasure, and identity fragmentation, Kufic becomes more than an aesthetic preference: it becomes a statement.

Whether painted on a wall, embedded in a digital collage, or encoded into a video installation, Kufic serves as a visual testament of belonging and continuity. It resists forgetting by inscribing cultural heritage into the fabric of contemporary expression.

Ultimately, the journey of Kufic script in modern art reveals that it is not a static tradition but a renewable cultural resource. Its visual potential, symbolic richness, and compositional versatility render it a bridge between past and future. Emerging from the silent symmetry of history, Kufic now reverberates through the polyphonic spaces of contemporary culture.

The Future of Kufic Script: Aesthetics, Technology, and the Search for Meaning

Despite its ancient roots, Kufic script has never remained confined to a fixed form. Instead, it has continually evolved—adapting to aesthetic trends, technological developments, and shifting cultural paradigms. This section explores potential futures for Kufic script, examining the roles it may play in emerging artistic, technological, and educational landscapes, as well as its enduring function as a vehicle for meaning in a changing world.

A New Generation of Artists and the Evolution of Kufic

Today’s young artists, while honoring the classical legacy of Kufic, are also expanding its boundaries through conceptual and experimental approaches. While maintaining the proportional discipline of traditional Kufic, they explore new visual languages rooted in interactivity, abstraction, and critique.

The abstract nature of Kufic letters makes them well-suited for new media, including animation, interactive installations, augmented reality (AR), and virtual reality (VR). Through these technologies, Kufic script transforms into a multisensory, immersive experience—not just seen or read, but navigated and felt.

Kufic as a Contribution to a Universal Visual Language

Beyond the Islamic context, Kufic has found a place within global visual culture. Its geometric clarity and rhythmic patterns position it as a universal design vocabulary. In this expanded context, Kufic script becomes a metaphorical tool—signifying structure, meaning, and cultural depth.

Contemporary artists increasingly employ Kufic not merely as a textual signifier, but as a set of abstract compositional elements that visualize cultural narratives and historical consciousness. Through this, Kufic integrates with the broader discourse of global contemporary art while retaining its theological and civilizational memory.

Technological Transformation and Digital Memory

The digital age presents new opportunities for the preservation, reproduction, and dissemination of Kufic script. Digital archives, NFT platforms, interactive museums, and virtual exhibitions allow Kufic forms to reach wider audiences and become part of contemporary digital heritage.

Parametric typography systems and AI-driven design software now analyze Kufic geometry to produce new typographic models—models that are both rooted in classical aesthetics and open to innovation. Thus, Kufic becomes a technologically sustainable and culturally renewable design system.

Kufic in Education and Cultural Transmission

Kufic is not merely an artistic practice—it is also a medium of education and cultural transmission. Within disciplines such as calligraphy, graphic design, architecture, and art history, the theoretical and practical study of Kufic develops not only technical skills but also visual thinking and cultural identity.

Learning Kufic today involves not only mastering proportions and structures but also engaging with its symbolic world. It becomes a pedagogical tool, a cultural code, and a historical consciousness—offering students a bridge between aesthetic practice and civilizational heritage.

From Fixed Form to Fluid Meaning: The Future of Kufic Art

Historically, Kufic script was based on strict proportional systems and modular grids. Yet contemporary aesthetics increasingly privilege fluidity, multiplicity, and interpretive openness. This shift challenges Kufic to remain relevant by embracing its potential for dynamic meaning-making.

Today, Kufic derives meaning not only from the arrangement of letters, but from context, viewer interaction, and spatial engagement. It becomes a mode of visual thought, a cultural performance, and an evolving language of presence.

Kufic Calligraphy: Development and Styles

Kufic is the oldest calligraphic form of the various Arabic scripts. The name of the script derives from Kufa, a city in southern Iraq which was considered an intellectual center within the early Islamic period. The Kufic script was developed around the seventh century CE, where it was extensively and exclusively used to copy the Qur’an by theorders of one of the Rashidien Caliph, Uthman bin Affan, until the eleventh century. The Kufic script is a style of Arabic script that gained prominence early on as a preferred script for Quran transcription and architectural decoration, and it has since become a reference and an archetype for a number of other Arabic scripts. It developed from the Arabic alphabet in the city of Kufa, from which its name is derived.

Characteristics of Kufic Script

Kufic is characterized by angular, rectilinear letterforms and its horizontal orientation. The main characteristic of the Kufic script “appears to be the transformation of the ancient cuneiform script into the Arabic letters,” according to Enis Timuçin Tan.Moreover, it was characterized by figural letters that were shaped in a way to be nicely written on parchment, building and decorative objects like lusterware and coins.

Kufic script is composed of geometrical forms like straight lines and angles along with verticals and horizontals. Originally, Kufic did not have what is known as a differentiated consonant, which means, for example, that the letters “t”, “b”, and “th” were not  distinguished by diacritical marks and looked the same. During the first few centuries in Islam, Arabic was written without any vowel marks or dots as how the Arabic script can be seen today. This is because there was no need for these helping markers; the early Muslims were Arabs, and thus could read the Qur’an without any help. However, this changed when Islam became a multinational and multiracial religion. The need for vowel marking and dots to denote different sounds and establish differences between similar-looking characters arose, and they remain today in the Qur’an. The Kufic script dots are sometimes done in red ink. It is believed that ascribe named Abdul Aswad was the first to use these markings in 1310 CE.

Usage of Kufic Script

The Quran was first written in a plain, slanted, and uniform script but, when its content was formalized, a script that denoted authority emerged. This coalesced into what is now known as Primary Kufic script. Kufic was prevalent in manuscripts from the 7th to10th centuries. Around the 8th century, it was the most important of several variants ofArabic scripts with its austere and fairly low vertical profile and a horizontal emphasis.Until about the 11th century, it was the main script used to copy the Quran. Professionalcopyists employed a particular form of Kufic for reproducing the earliest surviving copiesof the Quran, which were written on parchment and date from the 8th to 10th centuries.In later Kufic Qurans of the ninth and early tenth century, “the sura headings were moreoften designed with the sura title as the main feature, often written in gold, with apalmette extending into the margin,” comments Marcus Fraser.One impressive example of an early Quran manuscript, known as the Blue Quran,features gold Kufic script on parchment dyed with indigo. It is commonly attributed tothe early Fatimid or Abbasid court. The main text of this Quran is written in gold ink, thusthe effect on looking at the manuscript is of gold on blue.Regional Variations and Styles of KuficThere were no set rules of using the Kufic script; the only common feature is the angular,linear shapes of the characters. Due to the lack of standardized methods, the scripts indifferent regions and countries and even down to the individuals themselves havedifferent ways to write in the script creatively, ranging from very square and rigid formsto flowery and decorative.

Several regional variations of Kufic script developed over time:

Magribi (Moroccan or Western) Kufic

The Maghribi Kufic script is still rigid, linear and thick, however it features a significantamount of curves and loops as opposed to the original Arabic Kufic script. Loops for thecharacters such as the Waw and the Meem are pronounced and perhaps moreexaggerated.

Kufi Mashriqi (Eastern Kufic)

A thinner, cursive and decorative form of Kufic found in eastern regions. The nib of thepen used to write in this form of Kufi is thinner, and it is more cursive with somecharacters given long, cursive strokes. However, it is still within the angular vocabularyof the Kufic script.

Fatimi Kufi

Prevalent in the North African region, particularly in Egypt. Since the script is verystylized and decorative, this form was mainly used in the decoration of buildings. AFatimi Kufi script can be seen with decoration among the characters such as theinclusion of the Endless Knot or vegetal motif both in the character itself and as abackground motif.

Square Kufic (Murabba’ Kufi)

Square or geometric Kufic is a very simplified rectangular style widely used for tiling. It isabsolutely straight with no decorative accents or curves shown. Due to this absoluterigidity, this type of script can be created using square tiles or bricks. It is popular in Iranand in Turkey, where in the latter, it was popular as a decoration of buildings during theOttoman empire.

 Decorative Kufic

Mainly used for daily items such as plates, bowls, vases or ewers. Too often, theinscriptions done in this script are barely readable, because of the heavy decorating. Aletter may disappear in the extensive decorating that could include turning the lettersinto vegetal forms such as vines and leaves, or written very thinly with exaggeratedvertical lines and curves.6. Ghaznavid and Khourasan ScriptsIn Iran, in addition to the Kufi Mashriqi script (which was also referred to as the Piramouzscript), there are also more forms of the script known as the Ghaznavid and Khourasanscripts. The scripts were mostly used for monument decoration and also for coinage, aswell as daily items. The Khourasan script is as thick as the Original Arabic Kufic script,but added with a simple flair for each character. The Ghaznavid Kufi has elongatedvertical lines and rounded ends with decoration around the characters.

Ornamental Use of Kufic Script

Ornamental Kufic became an important element in Islamic art as early as the eighthcentury for Quranic headings, numismatic inscriptions and major commemorativewritings. The Kufic script is inscribed on textiles, coins, lusterware, buildings and so on.Coins were very important in the development of the Kufic script. In fact, “the letterstrokes on coins, had become perfectly straight, with curves tending toward geometricalcircularity by 86”, observes Alain George. As an example, Kufic is commonly seen onSeljuk coins and monuments and on early Ottoman coins.In Iran sometimes entire buildings are covered with tiles spelling sacred names likethose of God, Muhammad and Ali in square Kufic, a technique known as banna’i.There is also “Pseudo-Kufic”, also “Kufesque”, which refers to imitations of the Kuficscript, made in a non-Arabic context, during the Middle Ages or the Renaissance. Theartistic styling of Kufic led to its use in a non-Arabic context in Europe, as decoration onarchitecture.

Decline and Legacy

Around the 11th century, Kufic began to be replaced with more cursive scripts such asNaskh and Thuluth for Quranic copying. Thuluth script is distinguished from Kufic scriptin its use of decorative elements whereas the latter was designed to avoid decorativemotifs. In place of the decorations in Kufic scripts, Thuluth used vowels.However, Kufic continued to be used for decorative purposes in architecture, coins, andother ornamental contexts due to its distinctive aesthetic qualities. Its influence can stillbe seen in modern Islamic art and design, and it remains an important part of theIslamic calligraphic tradition.III. Important Historical Figures in Arabic CalligraphyThe development of Arabic calligraphy as a refined art form was largely shaped bymaster calligraphers who established the foundational principles and styles that wouldinfluence generations to come. These historical figures not only perfected the technicalaspects of calligraphy but also elevated it to a high art form with spiritual and culturalsignificance.

The Three Masters of Arabic Calligraphy

The development of Arabic calligraphy as a refined art form was largely shaped by threegreat masters who established the foundational principles and styles that wouldinfluence calligraphers for centuries to come. These three figures, often referred to asthe “Three Masters,” are:

1. Ibn Muqla (885-940 CE)

Full name: Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Muqla

Contributions: – Codified the six scripts (al-aqlam al-sitta) that became the foundationfor the practice of calligraphy – Established a proportional writing system that used acircle with the diameter of the letter alif as its basis – Invented the thuluth style anddeveloped the naskh script – Created the system known as al-khatt al-mansub(“proportioned script”) – Wrote extensively about the art of calligraphy and devisedtheories of letter shapes

Biography: Ibn Muqla was born in Baghdad and rose to prominence as both acalligrapher and a political figure. He served as vizier (chief counselor) three timesbetween 928 and 936 CE under different Abbasid caliphs. His political career wastumultuous, leading to multiple imprisonments. During one imprisonment, his enemiescut off his right hand. When released, he continued to work with great skill using his lefthand. Eventually, his left hand was severed, his tongue cut out, and he was cast intoprison where he died in 940 CE.

Ibn Muqla’s proportional system revolutionized Arabic calligraphy by establishingmathematical principles for letter formation. In the al-khatt al-mansub system, letterdesign is related to three measurements: the size of nuqta (dot); the height of the alif;and the circle with a diameter equal to the height of the alif.

2. Ibn al-Bawwab (late 10th century-1022 CE)

Full name: Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali Ibn Hilal, known as Ibn al-Bawwab (“Son of the Doorman”)Contributions: – Refined the rules of Ibn Muqla’s six scripts – Developed a system of

proportional measurement such that each letter could be measured by its height andwidth in dots – Perfected the al-khatt al-mansub style created by Ibn Muqla – Wrote afamous poem about calligraphy that serves as both instruction and inspiration

Biography: Unlike Ibn Muqla, Ibn al-Bawwab was born a commoner, the son of adoorkeeper. He began his career as a house painter, then became a book illuminatorbefore taking up calligraphy. He mastered the known calligraphy scripts and developeda few new scripts. He was an imam in a mosque in Baghdad and was known for beingsomewhat eccentric, wearing odd clothes. He wrote 64 copies of the Qur’an, only one ofwhich still exists (in Dublin’s Chester Beatty Library).

3. 3. Yaqut al-Musta’simi (early 13th century-1298 CE)

Full name: Abu’l-Majd Jamal al-Din Yaqut, known as Yaqut al-Musta’simi because heserved Caliph al-Musta’sim

Contributions: – Refined the six scripts set down by Ibn al-Bawwab – Gave the lettershapes new dimension by emphasizing the slanted cut of the pen – Further systematizedthe method of proportional measurement with dots – Developed the school ofcalligraphy that Turkish and Persian calligraphers followed for years to come

Biography: Born in the region of Anatolia, Yaqut was a slave of the last caliph of the’Abassid dynasty in Baghdad, al-Musta’sim Billah (reigned 1242-1258). He spent nearlyhis whole life in Baghdad and became a scribe in the royal court. Interestingly, hestudied calligraphy with an excellent woman calligrapher named Shuhda Bint Al-‘Ibari, astudent in the direct line of Ibn al-Bawwab.

Yaqut was deeply committed to his art. During the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258, hetook refuge in the minaret of a mosque so he could finish his calligraphy practice, whilethe city was being ravaged below. His career flourished under Mongol patronage afterthe fall of Baghdad. He was prolific, reportedly making 364 copies of the Qur’an, severalcopies of which still exist and are highly prized by collectors.Later Influential Calligraphers

These master calligraphers were not merely artists but also scholars, mathematicians,and in some cases, political figures. Their contributions went beyond aesthetics toestablish systematic approaches to letter formation based on geometric principles andproportional relationships.The three great masters—Ibn Muqla, Ibn al-Bawwab, and Yaqut al-Musta’simi—created acontinuous tradition of calligraphic excellence that spanned nearly four centuries. Theirwork established Arabic calligraphy as one of the highest art forms in Islamic civilization,with principles that continue to influence calligraphers today.The later masters, particularly those who developed regional styles like Persian nasta’liqand Ottoman Turkish variations, demonstrate how the art form evolved whilemaintaining its connection to the foundational principles established by the threemasters.The development of Arabic calligraphy reflects broader cultural, religious, and politicalcurrents in Islamic history, from the height of the Abbasid Caliphate through the Mongolinvasions and into the Ottoman and Safavid periods.

Political and Historical Influences on Arabic Script and Calligraphy

The development of Arabic script and calligraphy has been profoundly influenced bypolitical and historical factors throughout Islamic history. The relationship betweencalligraphy and political power is not incidental but fundamental to understanding howthis art form evolved and flourished across different regions and periods.As noted by scholar Vlad Atanasiu, “The benefits of a link between state politics andcalligraphy are mutual: part of cultural politics, calligraphy brings its sponsors prestigewhich attracts in turn various types and levels of support from individuals, communities,and institutions, while calligraphers also gain prestige and—more important—jobs.”

Early Islamic Period and the Umayyads (661-750 CE)

The earliest development of formal Arabic calligraphy coincided with the establishmentand expansion of the Islamic empire. During this period:

The need to spread the message of Islam created a demand for standardized scriptThe Umayyad caliphate recognized the political value of a distinctive visual identityEarly Quranic manuscripts became symbols of religious and political authorityThe nascent empire produced the necessary wealth and desire for art, resulting inthe first known masterpieces of Arabic calligraphyThe Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, built under Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik in 691-692CE, features one of the earliest monumental Kufic inscriptions. This was not merelydecorative but a highly political statement—a symbol of Islam as a world religion thatprovided credibility, importance, and attraction to the ruling power.The Abbasid Dynasty (750-1258 CE)The Abbasid period marked a golden age for Arabic calligraphy, with Baghdad becomingthe center of calligraphic development:

The empire needed scribes for its growing administration and instructors to teachpeople to read and writeA numerous workforce involved with the shaping of letters emerged who needed toretain their jobs after the Muslims took over from the defeated dynastiesThe introduction of paper from China in the 8th century revolutionized calligraphyby providing a more suitable medium than parchmentThe Abbasid caliphs actively patronized calligraphers, recognizing their politicalvalueDuring this period, the vizier Ibn Muqla (886-940 CE) established a proportional systemfor Arabic script that became the foundation for allsubsequent calligraphicdevelopment. His position as a high government official was not coincidental—itreflected the close relationship between political power and calligraphic innovation.

Persian Influence and the Post-Mongol Period

The period spanning before and after the 15th century and centered on Persia wasparticularly significant for the history of Arabic calligraphy:

The Mongol invasion of the Islamic world in the 13th century, while devastating, ledto new cultural synthesesUnder Mongol rule, calligraphy became an extraordinary amalgam of existingstyles fused with modified East Asian motifsThe aesthetic models and social status of calligraphers that appeared during thistime lasted until the presentYaqut al-Musta’simi, who served the last Abbasid caliph before the Mongol conquest,managed to survive the fall of Baghdad in 1258 and continued to work under Mongolpatronage. This transition symbolizes how calligraphy transcended political upheavalswhile adapting to new patrons.

Ottoman Empire (1299-1922 CE)

The Ottoman period saw calligraphy reach new heights of prestige and politicalsignificance:

Ottoman sultans themselves practiced calligraphy, with Sultan Bayezid II famouslyholding the inkstand for the legendary calligrapher Shaykh Hamdullah•Many Timurid princes were accomplished calligraphers, and their works have beenpreserved

Mamluk sultans were also patrons of calligraphy, with even lower-ranking Mamlukscommissioning manuscriptsThe Ottoman court established a system of calligraphic education and patronagethat produced generations of master calligraphersThe practice of calligraphy by rulers themselves elevated the art form to unprecedentedstatus. It became fashionable for a ruler to practice calligraphy, demonstrating bothcultural refinement and a connection to Islamic tradition.Technical Innovations with Political ImplicationsSeveral technical innovations in calligraphy had significant political implications:

Symbol of Islamic Identity

Arabic calligraphy became a unifying visual language across the diverse Islamic world, transcending linguistic, ethnic, and regional differences. From Morocco to Indonesia, the Arabic script served as a powerful symbol of Islamic identity and cultural unity, even in regions where Arabic was not the primary spoken language. The distinctive appearance of Arabic script made Islamic artifacts, buildings, and texts immediately recognizable as part of Islamic civilization. This visual identity helped to forge a sense of community among Muslims from different backgrounds and contributed to the development of a shared cultural heritage.

Cultural Continuity and Tradition

The transmission of calligraphic knowledge from master to student established a chain of cultural continuity that spans more than a millennium. As noted by one source, “Islamic calligraphy exists today because its beauty and teachings were passed down from teacher to student for hundreds of years. Continuing these practices is a duty of Muslims to ensure calligraphy survives for centuries to come.” This tradition of learning and transmission created a living link to the past, connecting contemporary Muslims to earlier generations through shared artistic practices. The ijaza(certificate) system, in which a master would formally authorize a student to teach and practice a particular style, ensured the maintenance of high standards and the preservation of traditional techniques.

Cross-Cultural Exchange

Arabic calligraphy also facilitated cultural exchange between Islamic civilization and other cultures. The spread of paper-making technology from China to the Islamic world in the 8th century revolutionized calligraphy by providing a more suitable medium than parchment. In turn, the Islamic emphasis on beautiful writing influenced European manuscript traditions through contacts in Spain, Sicily, and the Crusader states. Within the Islamic world itself, calligraphy served as a medium through which different regional traditions could influence and enrich one another. Persian, Turkish, and Indian calligraphers adapted Arabic scripts to their own aesthetic sensibilities, creating distinctive regional styles while maintaining connections to the broader Islamic calligraphic tradition.

Aesthetic Significance

Beauty as a Spiritual Value

In Islamic thought, beauty is not merely decorative but has spiritual significance. The Prophet Muhammad is reported to have said, “God is beautiful and loves beauty.” The creation of beautiful calligraphy was thus seen as an act that reflected divine attributes and pleased God. The aesthetic dimension of calligraphy was not separate from its religious function but integral to it. The beauty of the script was understood to enhance the impact of the message it conveyed, making divine truths more accessible to the human heart. As one scholar notes, “These scriptural renditions, far beyond mere text, offer a rich, visual experience — each meticulously crafted stroke tells a tale, much like a painting evokes myriad emotions and narratives.”

Geometric Harmony and Proportion

Arabic calligraphy embodies principles of geometric harmony and proportion that reflect Islamic cosmological concepts. The proportional systems developed by calligraphers like Ibn Muqla, who established a system based on the relationship between the dot, the alif, and the circle, created a mathematical foundation for aesthetic beauty.These geometric principles connected calligraphy to other Islamic arts and sciences, including architecture, astronomy, and music, all of which explored the mathematical patterns underlying creation. The harmony and balance achieved in calligraphy were seen as reflections of the harmony and balance of the universe created by God.

Versatility and Adaptability

The aesthetic significance of Arabic calligraphy is also evident in its remarkable versatility and adaptability. Calligraphers developed numerous styles, from the angular Kufic to the flowing Thuluth, each with its own aesthetic qualities and appropriate contexts. This versatility allowed calligraphy to be applied across various media and scales, from tiny manuscript pages to monumental architectural inscriptions. The ability of calligraphers to adapt their art to different materials, spaces, and purposes while maintaining its essential character demonstrates the profound aesthetic resources of the tradition.

Intellectual and Educational Significance

Literacy and Knowledge

The emphasis on beautiful writing in Islamic civilization was connected to the high value placed on literacy and knowledge. The first verses revealed to the Prophet Muhammad began with the command “Read!” (Iqra), and the Quran repeatedly emphasizes the importance of knowledge and learning. Calligraphy served as both a tool for and a symbol of literacy. The spread of calligraphic education helped to increase literacy rates in Islamic societies, while the visual prominence of calligraphy in public spaces reinforced the cultural prestige of the written word.

Discipline and Spiritual Development

Learning calligraphy required discipline, patience, and attention to detail—qualities that were valued not only for their practical benefits but also for their spiritual significance. The training of a calligrapher involved not just technical instruction but also moral and spiritual guidance. As one source notes, “Writing calligraphy by hand instills patience and perseverance in Muslims, emphasizing the beauty of sabr (patience) and how valuable time and careful consideration can lead to the creation of something beautiful and meaningful.” Thepractice of calligraphy was thus understood as a form of spiritual discipline that could contribute to the development of a virtuous character.

Intellectual Integration

Calligraphy integrated various fields of knowledge, including linguistics, geometry, aesthetics, and religious studies. Master calligraphers needed to understand the grammatical and semantic dimensions of the texts they wrote, the geometric principles that governed letter forms, and the theological implications of their work. This intellectual integration reflected the holistic approach to knowledge characteristic of classical Islamic civilization, which sought to understand the connections between different domains rather than compartmentalizing them. Calligraphy thus embodied the ideal of knowledge as a unified whole rather than a collection of separate disciplines.

Social and Political Significance

Social Prestige and Patronage

Calligraphy enjoyed high social prestige in Islamic societies, and master calligraphers were accorded great respect. As one source states, “These calligraphic works are considered to be the process of making and are themselves a form of art and fine skill and master calligraphers are much honored.” The social significance of calligraphy was reinforced through systems of patronage, with rulers, nobles, and wealthy merchants commissioning calligraphic works and supporting the training of calligraphers. This patronage not only provided economic support for calligraphers but also associated their patrons with the cultural and religious values embodied in calligraphy.

Political Legitimacy

Rulers throughout Islamic history used calligraphy as a means of asserting their political legitimacy. By commissioning Quranic manuscripts, building mosques with calligraphic inscriptions, and having their names included in calligraphic compositions, they presented themselves as defenders and promoters of Islam. The Ottoman sultans, in particular, cultivated close associations with calligraphy, with many practicing the art themselves. Sultan Bayezid II famously held the inkstand for the legendary calligrapher Shaykh Hamdullah, symbolically demonstrating the ruler’s respect for and service to the art of writing God’s word.Public Communication Calligraphy served as a medium for public communication in Islamic societies. Inscriptions on buildings, coins, and other public objects conveyed religious, political, and social messages to both literate and illiterate audiences. Even those who could not read could recognize the visual form of important phrases like the shahada (declaration of faith) or the names of Allah and Muhammad. Calligraphy thus functioned as a visual language that could communicate across barriers of literacy and linguistic difference.

Contemporary Significance Cultural Heritage and Identity

In the contemporary world, Arabic calligraphy continues to serve as an important marker of cultural heritage and identity for Muslims. As traditional arts face challenges from globalization and technological change, calligraphy has taken on new significance as a link to Islamic cultural roots. Recognition of this importance can be seen in recent initiatives like Saudi Arabia extending the Year of Arabic Calligraphy into 2021 and UNESCO registering the art form on its Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage. These efforts reflect a growing awareness of the need to preserve and promote calligraphic traditions for future generations.

Artistic Innovation

Contemporary artists continue to draw inspiration from calligraphic traditions while developing new forms and approaches. Modern calligraphers experiment with new materials, techniques, and compositions, creating works that dialogue with both Islamic tradition and contemporary art movements. The emergence of styles like “calligraffiti,” which fuses traditional calligraphy with street art aesthetics, demonstrates the ongoing vitality and adaptability of the calligraphic tradition. As one source notes, “Arabic calligraphy… continues to develop both in traditional methods as well as in digital and computer-generated arts.”

Educational and Spiritual Resource

For many contemporary Muslims, learning and practicing calligraphy serves as both an educational and spiritual resource. Calligraphy classes and workshops provide opportunities to connect with Islamic cultural heritage, develop artistic skills, and engage in a practice with spiritual dimensions.As one source suggests, “In school and/or university Muslim Student Associations, or in Muslim spaces throughout workplaces and communities, consider inviting Islamic calligraphers to host workshops for anybody curious to learn the art, encouraging both Muslims and non-Muslims to practice and revive Arabic calligraphy.” These educational initiatives help to ensure the continued transmission of calligraphic knowledge and appreciation.

Conclusion: The Enduring Legacy of Arabic Script and Kufic Calligraphy

The history of Arabic script and Kufic calligraphy represents one of the most significant artistic and cultural developments in Islamic civilization. From its humble beginnings as a practical writing system to its elevation as a sublime art form, Arabic calligraphy has played a central role in shaping Islamic visual culture and identity. The development of Arabic script reflects the dynamic interplay of religious, political, cultural, and aesthetic factors throughout Islamic history. The early standardization efforts during the Umayyad and Abbasid periods laid the foundation for the flourishin  of calligraphic arts. The contributions of master calligraphers like Ibn Muqla, Ibn al  Bawwab, and Yaqut al-Musta’simi established systematic approaches to letter formation that continue to influence calligraphers today. Kufic calligraphy, with its distinctive angular character, holds a special place in this history as the first formalized style of Arabic script. Its use in early Quranic manuscripts and architectural decoration established a visual language that became immediately recognizable as Islamic. The evolution of Kufic into various regional styles demonstrates the adaptability and creative potential of this script. The political dimension of Arabic calligraphy cannot be overlooked. Throughout Islamic history, rulers and elites patronized calligraphers and used calligraphic inscriptions to assert their legitimacy and piety. The mutual relationship between political power andNcalligraphic development shaped the evolution of styles and techniques. The versatility of Arabic calligraphy is evident in its application across various media— from manuscripts to monumental architecture, from textiles to metalwork, from coins to ceramics. This adaptability allowed calligraphy to permeate all aspects of Islamic material culture, creating a unified visual language across diverse regions and periods. The significance of Arabic calligraphy extends far beyond its aesthetic appeal. As a sacred art connected to divine revelation, a cultural symbol that unites diverse communities, an aesthetic tradition of remarkable sophistication, an intellectual discipline that integrates various fields of knowledge, and a social practice embedded incomplex networks of patronage and power, calligraphy has played a central role in shaping Islamic civilization. In the contemporary world, Arabic calligraphy continues to evolve and adapt to new contexts while maintaining its connection to tradition. Modern calligraphers and artists draw inspiration from historical styles while experimenting with new materials, techniques, and compositions. Educational initiatives aim to preserve and transmit calligraphic knowledge to future generations. The enduring legacy of Arabic script and Kufic calligraphy can be seen in its continued vitality and relevance. As one source eloquently states, “Its historical roots, spiritual significance, and aesthetic beauty make it an integral part of Islamic heritage; whether engraved in the walls of a mosque or carefully inscribed upon the pages of a manuscript, Islamic calligraphy invites us to pause, reflect, and appreciate the beauty of words written in the name of Allah” In a world increasingly dominated by digital communication and mass-produced imagery, the handcrafted beauty and spiritual depth of Arabic calligraphy offer a powerful reminder of the potential for human creativity to express and embody sacred values. The tradition of Arabic calligraphy thus stands as one of the most significant and distinctive contributions of Islamic civilization to world culture, a living tradition that continues to evolve while maintaining its essential connection to its spiritual and cultural roots.

Conclusion: From Silent Letters to Cultural Resonance

Kufic script is not merely a calligraphic style; it is a complex domain of cultural memory constructed at the intersection of Islamic metaphysics, aesthetics, and spiritual imagination. From its earliest manifestations in the written transmission of revelation to its monumental inscriptions on architecture, its political use in coinage and textiles, and its meditative forms in manuscripts and modern art, Kufic tells a vast and layered story.

Throughout this work, we have examined Kufic not just as a paleographic development, but as a theological, aesthetic, epistemological, and political phenomenon. Each chapter has illuminated a different facet of Kufic’s identity—not as a fixed object, but as a mode of thought, a visual philosophy, and a spiritual geometry.

Kufic constructs a link between geometry and the sacred; it regulates meaning through form; it speaks through silence. Its visual abstraction reflects not only artistic choice but a metaphysical worldview free of figural representation. In modern contexts, Kufic has been revived and reimagined—integrated into contemporary architecture, design, and digital art. This revival attests not to nostalgia, but to continuity and re-creation.

Kufic is a cultural echo that reverberates across epochs. It transcends its historical moment and invites each generation to inscribe their meanings into its silent forms. Its lines are fixed, but its meanings are fluid. As the most restrained and abstract of Islamic scripts, it continues to speak—quietly but powerfully—through time, space, and spirit.

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