Kufi Calligraphy and Philosophy of History

Kufi Calligraphy

اِقْرَأْ بِاسْمِ رَبِّكَ الَّذٖي خَلَقَۚ


,خَلَقَ الْاِنْسَانَ مِنْ عَلَقٍۚ


اِقْرَأْ  وَ رَبُّكَ الْاَكْرَمُۙ 


اَلَّذٖي عَلَّمَ بِالْقَلَمِۙ


عَلَّمَ الْاِنْسَانَ مَا لَمْ يَعْلَمْؕ 

Recite: In the name of thy Lord who created
Created man of a blood-clot.
Recite: And thy Lord is the most Generous,
Who taught by the Pen
Taught Man, that he knew not
Qur’an/ The Blood-clot (1)

وَعَلَّمَ اٰدَمَ الْاَسْمَٓاءَ كُلَّهَا


And He taught Adam the names, all of them
Quran/ The Cow 31
Ma’nâ yı-kelâm şâhid i-mazmûn i-Hudâdır
                                                           Gönlüm sadefinden olur azrâ gibi peydâ
`The meaning of the word professes
 the hidden existence of God in it: and this word, likewise a virgin pearl,
occurs in my heart which is the mother-of-pearl.”
 Şeydâ Dîvânı, Tevhid Kasidesi

1. The Pen, the Preserved Tablet, and Divine Instruction.

سم الله الرحمن الرحيم
 الحمد لله الذي خلق القلم أولاً .  و كتب الكتاب المكنون بذلك القلم في اللوح المحفوظ . و فيه كتب كل المقدّرات، من البداية إلى يوم القيامة. هو الله الخالق لكل أمرٍ و شأن. و الشكر لا يعد لمن خلق الإنسان و علّمه البيان .  و هو علّم آدم الأسماء كلّها، و علّم بالقلم ، و علّم الإنسان ما لم يعلم .  لأن الوحي الأوّل كان اقرأ باسم ربّك و قيل في تلك الآية هو الذي علم بالقلم
.كما كان هذا القسم بالقلم في القرآن, ن و القلم و ما يسطرون
…و في القرآن له آية تدل على ماهیت القرآن. بل هو قرآن مجيد في لوحٍ محفوظ


صلوا على محمّد هو كشف الدجى بنور الوحي و نوّر قلوب العارفين به . و بدأ الخط الكوفي في عصره ليكتب آيات القرآن ولقد كان القرآن مصدر الفكر والحضارة الإسلامية كلها. والقرآن كتب بالخط الكوفي لعدة قرون. ولهذا السبب أصبح الخط الكوفي أشهر في تمثيل الحضارة الإسلامية. كما كان الان . وهذا من فضل  ربي
In the name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful
Praise be to God who created the Pen first and the hidden book was written with that pen on the Preserved Tablet. In it are written all the decrees, from the beginning until the Day of Resurrection. He is God, the Creator of every matter and phenomen. Countless Gratitude is to the One who created man and taught him speech.  He taught Adam all the names, taught with the pen, and taught man what he did not know.  Because the first revelation was “Read in the name of your Lord,” and it also was said in that verse: “He is the one who taught with the pen.” As this oath was in the pen in the Qur’an Nun, by the pen, and what the lines it writes…And in the Qur’an there is a verse that indicates that Qur’an is eternal. But rather it is glorious Qur’an in a preserved tablet.
Pray for Muhammad, he removes darkness with the light of revelation and enlightens the hearts of those who know him. In his era, the Kufic script began to write verses of the Qur’an, and the Qur’an was the source of all Islamic thought and civilization. The Qur’an was written in Kufi script for centuries. For this reason, the Kufic script became a representation of Islamic civilization.   As it was now. This is from the grace of my Lord.

Thus, silent letters of the kufi script had become an embodiment of Kelamullah/ the Word of God; displaying all the resonant spectrum of enchanting melodic incantations of the recitations of Qur`an verses; thus it come to light and participate in every aspect of Islamic culture.

Amajur Qur`an

2. Kufic Calligraphy as the Embodiment of the Sacred Word

The substance of Kufi calligraphy transcends its material structure or symbolic letters because it was the embodied face of the sacred word, the manifested face of the sacred revelation of the Qur’an. As if it were the incarnation of the sacred Word of Allah, it was the first materialized form of the Qur’an. And Qur`an itself could be considered as some recitations from the verses of Lawh Mahfuz (the Preserved Tablet). And the Qur’an’s mediating role between the human heart and Allah—that is, the soul of the Qur’an—had been embodied by the Kufi script. According to Qur’anic revelation, writing is not merely a record but a manifestation—an embodiment—of divine knowledge. As expressed in the aforementioned epigraph, in the very first verses of the Qur’an:

“Recite in the name of your Lord who created—Created man from a clinging substance.Recite, and your Lord is the Most Generous—Who taught by the pen—Taught man what he did not know.” (Qur’an, 96:1–5)

The “Pen (al-Qalam),” as described in this verse by the Qur’an, is not only an instrument of writing but of divine instruction. Here, the Pen is not merely a tool for writing but a sacred symbol that records knowledge beforehand, foreseeing and instructing it to come alive later, to come into the act of creation.

In fact, the Qur’an itself instructs us to begin with God’s name and commands human beings to learn, to read, and to pursue knowledge. It is an interesting mixtum compositum that creation, knowledge, and writing are all mentioned together in the first verses of the Qur’an. Human existence, the capacity for learning, and the act of writing are intertwined in a singular ontological structure here. And the name of the revelation itself, “The Qur’an,” means ‘to be recited,’ implying that meaning itself is revealed in the heart of the words, apparently materialized and represented as Kufi script, and then becomes alive when it is recited as the Qur’an.

3.  Preserved Tablet (Lawh Mahfuz) and Qur’an

Once, I wrote a poem about the Unity of God in my Divan (Şeydâ Dîvânı, Tevhid Kasidesi), and there is a stanza in that poem:

Ma’nâ yı-kelâm şâhid i-mazmûn i-Hudâdır 


Gönlüm sadefinden olur azrâ gibi peydâ

“The meaning of the word professes the hidden existence of God in it”

This word, likewise a virgin pearl, occurs in my heart which is the mother-of-pearl.”*1

How is it possible that some strange sounds of a word might include a “meaning,” and that word’s meaning can imply the hidden existence of God as Meaning? Here, Nature holds a material face of existence like the sound of a word, but nature also has a hidden meaning in it, like God. That is, God is the meaning of existence. Thus, unlike nature’s physical/material mode, there is also a metaphysical mode of nature. Nature’s physical face hides that sacred mode of meaning within it, just like a pearl in a shell.

This ontological framework highlights the metaphysical question of representation—how truth is made manifest. Here, the Qur’anic concept of the Lawḥ Maḥfūẓ (Preserved Tablet) becomes pertinent. The Qur’an itself, as a timeless text, is said to be inscribed on the eternal tablet:

بل هو قرآن مجيد في لوحٍ محفوظ “Indeed, it is a glorious Qur’an, In a Preserved Tablet.” (Qur’an, 85:21–22)

Here, the Lawḥ Maḥfūẓ/Preserved Tablet is understood as the cosmic ledger of divine decree, destiny, and knowledge. In this context, writing is not merely a communicative tool but a metaphysical register. The transcription of the Qur’an into written form does not reduce its timelessness; rather, it translates the eternal into the human realm of comprehension. Here, Kufi script serves not only an ontological but also a theophanic function, as its drawn signs reflect and embody the incarnation of meaning through words.

Islamic scholars have addressed these themes across theological, linguistic, and philosophical dimensions. Linguists such as Ibn Fāris and Ibn Jinnī maintained that language and writing possess a divine origin, grounding this belief in the verse:

وَعَلَّمَ اٰدَمَ الْاَسْمَٓاءَ كُلَّهَا “And He taught Adam the names—all of them…” (Qur’an, 2:31)

Indeed, according to the Qur’an, human language was also taught to Adam by God; thus, language is not a conventional communication instrument made by humans. This verse refers not solely to vocabulary acquisition but also to the naming of meanings, concepts, and even realities. Accordingly, writing is not simply a human invention but part of the ontological continuity of divine instruction—a vehicle of revelation, an embodiment of meaning, and a visible form of truth.

اِقْرَأْ  وَ رَبُّكَ الْاَكْرَمُۙ اَلَّذٖي عَلَّمَ بِالْقَلَمِۙ Recite: And thy Lord is the most Generous, Who taught by the Pen Taught Man, that he knew not Qur’an/ The Blood-clot

Writing, in this view, is not a creation but a tajallī—a divine manifestation.

“Kad şâ’e bi sun’ihi beyâneh

 Mâ azamü fil bekâi  şāneh”

“Indeed, He has willed its exposition through His craftsmanship.”
This line evokes divine intentionality—suggesting that the act of creation itself is a form of revelation. How magnificent is His affair in eternity.”

4. Theological and Cosmological Significance of Kufi Script, Letters as Theophanies in Islamic Thought

Thus, in the early centuries of Islamic civilization, Kufi calligraphy was  not only a mode of writing but also a metaphysical structure through which the sacred was represented. It served as a conduction channel for transferring revelation into spatial and temporal registers. It is the symbolically embodied aspect of articulating metaphysical truths as revealed by the Qur’an.

The usage of Kufi script in the earliest Qur’anic manuscripts enabled a strong identification between the form of writing and the content it carried. Besides, writing a Qur’an manuscript was not an easy task in the first century of Islam, because there was no paper then, and calligraphers were forced to write a few verses on large pages of parchments; Qur’an manuscripts were made from hundreds of sheepskins. Certainly, this material also had a significant impact on the minimalist and angular style of the Kufi calligraphy of the Qur’an. Within this framework, the geometric composition of the script might be perceived as a visual symbol of divine mystery. Its symmetrical balance of vertical and horizontal lines seems to reflect the divine order embedded in the universe. The space between letters and the proportional heights and widths of letters were functional features—but they also became revered as part of a sacred style that reinforced the sanctity of the message.

Let me remind here Ibn al-ʿArabī’s theory of the “ontology of letters,” which is especially illuminating. According to Ibn al-ʿArabī, every letter is a theophany—an outward manifestation of one of the metaphysical realities contained in divine knowledge. Letters are not accidental phonetic tools; they are expressions of divine being. Writing becomes a surface upon which these theophanies appear. The fixed geometric nature of Kufic script shows its ontological and metaphysical charge more visibly potent.

Ibn al-ʿArabī says: “All praise be to Allah, who instills meanings into the heart of words.” For Ibn al-ʿArabī, all letters are symbolic representations of God’s creative act. A letter is not merely a sound unit but the primordial shape of a being. Ibn al-ʿArabī’s theory of letters elevates this discussion to a mystical plane. In his thought, letters become the metaphysical building blocks of existence, each reflecting an aspect or attribute of the Divine Names. *2

”In his Art of Islam, Titus Burckhardt maintained that ‘it can be said without fear of exaggeration that nothing has typified the aesthetic sense of the Muslim peoples as much as the Arabic script’.¹⁷ While the term ‘calligraphy’ comes from the Greek words for beauty (kallos) and writing (graphein), Ibn ʿArabī’s meditations on the topic extend well beyond the properties of elegant handwriting. In Sufi circles, calligraphy was perceived as a technical science which involved the production of letters in accordance with the strictly defined geometrical ratios, strokes and angles – each of which is imbued with symbolic meanings. Firm in the belief that proficiency in calligraphy can lead to familiarity with the meaning of letters, Ibn ʿArabī analysed the orthographic forms of letters with geometric precision. By means of calligraphy, his notions of the ideal shapes and the meanings of letters are directly put into practice. In order to come to terms with Ibn ʿArabī’s meditations on the orthographic structures and the symbolic values he attributed to them, special attention will be given to the twenty-seven holographs and the several dozens of surviving autographs in Ibn ʿArabī’s own hand.” *3

As if, the architectural form of Kufic script embodies a belief that letters carry a metaphysical essence. Kufic calligraphy solemnly displays and suggests the aesthetic and visual expression of this reverence for the sacred words.

These theological implications of Kufic script are not confined to the shapes of letters alone. The materials with Kufi inscriptions or the space it occupies, like a mihrab, also contribute to its semantic richness. Qur’an verses written in Kufic script are not only vehicles of oral transmission but also served as visual representations of divine revelation. Some Qur’anic verses in Kufic script were often integrated into architectural surfaces—thus merging revelation with space and amplifying the symbolic power of the script.

This intermingling of writing with cosmic order is implied by Qur’anic verses such as the opening of Sūrat al-Qalam:

“Nūn. By the pen and what they inscribe.”  (Qur’an, 68:1)

Here, The Pen is not an ordinary object but, as aforementioned, it is the first creation of God, inscribing divine decree and order into existence. Hadith traditions also affirm this interpretation, stating that the first thing God created was the Pen. Here, writing signifies not only knowledge production but also the act of inscribing destiny and existence.

Kufic calligraphy, according to this cosmological symbolism, seems both static and dynamic. It appears majestic and static in its geometric fixity, but also dynamic because it embodies revelation and continually acquires new layers of meaning in time. Its static form suggests permanence, but its dynamic semiotic potential emphasizes the timeless relevance of the sacred message.

Moreover, the structural design of Kufic script could imply a reverence for an aesthetic feeling that aligns closely with the Islamic concept of tawḥīd—the oneness and unity of God. Its repetitive, proportionate, majestic visual character, commonly used on important buildings, makes Kufic calligraphy an aesthetic affirmation of divine unity and also an identity symbol of Islamic civilization. Each letter occupies a specific place in this visual cosmos; nothing is arbitrary. In such a way, Kufic script becomes a visual and symbolic articulation of tawḥīd at both the formal and conceptual levels.

It truly occupies a distinctive position within this representational framework. Its geometric construction produces a space where form and meaning meet. Its solemn and majestic abstraction invites not only textual reading but also intuitive contemplation. Kufic does not assert meaning directly; it intimates, alludes, and beckons the observer toward a metaphysical horizon.

As if, Kufic script visually expresses the belief that letters are not just phonetic units but ontological entities. Al-Ḥallāj’s dictum—“Letters are bodies, meanings are their souls”—resonates here as a metaphysical hermeneutic.

Kufic script, then, does not merely transcribe a text—it transmits the very structure of its meaning. The ratios between letters, their symmetrical layout, recurrence, and internal logic are not simply visual choices but reflect an architecture of meaning. Kufic is simultaneously a bearer and producer of meaning, an aesthetic system through which ontological truths are encoded.

This understanding of Kufi calligraphy marks it as a unique expression of the Islamic conception of the relationship between writing and truth. While preserving sacred content, it also suggests that meaning is not static but always subject to reinterpretation. Kufi`s  formal rigidity offers a visual anchor through which shifting interpretations may gain stability.

The calligrapher who wrote the book `âdâb ul mashk` (practice etiquette of callıgraphy) had said in that book  about calligraphy that:  “hemçünân ki heme kes Leyli râ mîdîd emmâ an çi Mecnûn mîdîd kesî nemîtuvânest dîd” (for instance. everybody  sees Leyla but what Mejnoun sees in her  noboody ıs able  to see

6. Scripture as Witness

Thus, Kufic calligraphy embodies the sacred, provokes reflection on meaning, and channels metaphysical resonance. In the silence of its letters, one hears the echoes of a vast cultural and theological vision. It is not just a calligraphy—it is a metaphysical architecture, a form of thought, and a sanctuary for meaning.

This is why the versatile symbolism of Kufi script appears so often in Islamic architecture. It usually adorns domes, mihrabs, or arches, making Kufi an act of devotion, contemplation, and transmission of knowledge. Kufi inscriptions of sacred texts onto architectural surfaces show, within this uniformity of style, becomes a symbol of tewhid (unity of Allah), a bearer of the unique meaning and identity of Islamic civilization.

That is, Kufic script manifests the integral interrelationship among knowledge, revelation, destiny, and aesthetics in Islam. Its geometric form implies cosmic order; its metaphysical dimension transforms letters into symbols of being. Kufic calligraphy is not merely writing—it seems as if it is the embodiment of theological truth and a sacred way through which the unseen is made visible.

`All that we see or seem

Is but a dream within a dream.’

 chapter two

1. On Historical Origins of Arabic Script and Historical Development of Kufi Calligraphy

Naturally, I’ve already seen many well-written books on the paleography and epigraphy of Arabic script by famous Orientalists.  I’ve also read many books, even some manuscripts, by Arab, Persian, or Turkish writers. However, I do not see a necessity to repeat all the knowledge I’ve learned from those books—all the known and unknown and problematic aspects of the subject. Instead, I’ll offer my interpretations whenever it seems proper to me. Nevertheless, this essay will  include a large enough bibliography for the more interested reader who wishes to learn more.

Let us recall some historical knowledge about the Arab people and the Qur’an: According to the Muslim religion, the Qur’an is the word of Allah revealed by the archangel Gabriel to the Prophet Muhammad. According to the traditional geneology prophet Muhammed`s ancestors descended from Abraham`sson ishmael. And Arab people also are divided into two groups: Adnani (northern Arabs considered Arab i-musta`ribe—that is, “Arabized Arabs” descended from Ishmael)—and Qahtani (southern Arabs, like the Yemenis).This is why the Arabs are called ‘The sons of Ishmael’ by the Jews. According to the Old Testamen, Abraham and Hagar’s son Ishmael had ten children. The names of Ishmael’s first and second sons given by the Old Testament seemed interestingly historical to me because it is referring Nabatian and Kedar kingdoms. Nebaioth, the firstborn of Ishmael, and Kedar.   `Now this is the genealogy of Ishmael, Abraham’s son, whom Hagar the Egyptian, Sarah’s maidservant, bore to Abraham. 13 And these were the names of the sons of Ishmael, by their names, according to their generations: The firstborn of Ishmael, Nebajoth; then Kedar, Adbeel, Mibsam, 14 Mishma, Dumah, Massa, 15 [a]Hadar, Tema, Jetur, Naphish, and Kedemah. 16 These were the sons of Ishmael and these were their names, by their towns and their [b]settlements, twelve princes according to their nations.` *1.  Kedar is the Father of the Qedarites, a northern Arab tribe that controlled the area between the Persian Gulf and the Sinai Peninsula. According to tradition, he is the ancestor of the Quraysh tribe, and thus, ancestor of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.^*2   According to Old Testament Nebaioth  was the Father of Nabataean people and according to paleographic and epigraphic investigations by Orientalists, the most widely held guess among them is that Arabic script originated from the Nabataean script.

 The origins of the Arabic script have been a subject of scholarly debate for centuries. There are two main theories about its origins: the Nabataean Theory and the Musnad Theory.

For example, Irvin Cemil Schick states: `The old and generally dominant view is that Arabic script was derived from Nabataean script; however, the chronological gap between the Nabataean and Arab civilizations necessitates a reexamination of this view. In more recent times, an alternative theory has been proposed suggesting that Arabic script originated from Aramaic/Syriac script. The former view has found support in Anglo-Saxon academic circles, while the latter has been favored in French scholarly environments. It would be highly appropriate for these theories to be discussed in Turkey as well. Yet, this issue—pertaining to the pre-Ottoman Turkish era—has remained off the agenda to this day, like many other “foreign” topics. Only legendary accounts, rather than historical evidence, have appeared in Turkish sources—stories passed down from generation to generation claiming that writing was invented by Prophet Adam or Prophet Idris, and that the first calligrapher was Imam Ali. ` *5

The most widely accepted theory is that the Arabic alphabet evolved from the Nabataean script, which itself was derived from the Aramaic alphabet. This evolution followed this path:

Phoenician alphabet → Aramaic alphabet → Nabataean Aramaic → Nabataean Arabic → Paleo-Arabic → Classical Arabic → Modern Standard Arabic  

* 6 .wikipedia,

Alain Gerge says “The Nabataean origin of the Arabic script has only been decisively established in recent years thanks to the discovery of a growing number of transitional late Nabataean inscriptions, especially in Saudi Arabia. For much of the twentieth century, a strand in scholarship had instead posited a Syriac origin of the script. *7

*8

The Nabataean script was used by the Nabataean Kingdom, centered in Petra (in modern-day Jordan) from around the 3rd century BCE. The Nabataeans were predominantly Arab Semitic tribes living in the area, controlling trade routes from the eastern Mediterranean shores to Hijaz (Saudi Arabia) and Yemen. A transitional phase between the Nabataean Aramaic script and a subsequent, recognizably Arabic script, is known as Nabataean Arabic. The pre-Islamic phase of the script as it existed in the fifth and sixth centuries CE, once it had become recognizably similar to the script as it came to be known in the Islamic era, is known as Paleo-Arabic.

An alternative Musnad Theory suggests that the Arabic script can be traced back to Ancient North Arabian scripts, which are derived from the ancient South Arabian script (Arabic: khaṭṭ al-musnad).

*9

`This hypothesis has been discussed by Arabic scholars Ibn Jinni and Ibn Khaldun. Some scholars, like Ahmed Sharaf Al-Din, have argued that the relationship between the Arabic alphabet and the Nabataeans is only due to the influence of the later after its emergence (from Ancient South Arabian script). Arabic has a one-to-one correspondence with ancient South Arabian script except for one letter. German historian Max Muller (1823-1900) thought the Phoenician script was adapted from Musnad during the 9th century BCE when the Minaean Kingdom of Yemen controlled areas of the Eastern Mediterranean shores. Syrian scholar Shakīb ´Arslan shares this view. *1o

Thus, to explore the history of the Kufic script is not merely to trace the formal evolution of a writing style. It also raises critical questions about historiography and epistemology. The origins of writing, its transformations, the contexts of its use, and the aesthetic choices it entails are shaped not only by material evidence but also by historical assumptions, intellectual frameworks, and interpretive narratives.

That is, historical origins of the Kufic script are not limited to the linear evolution of the Arabic script; they also reflect a broader cultural, political, and theological transformation. The development of Kufic writing corresponds with a rapidly evolving epistemological and aesthetic quest in the wake of Islam’s emergence. As a script, Kufic embodies the early Muslim community’s dual concern: preserving the Qur’anic revelation with precision and imparting to it a form of solemnity and visual dignity.

Because I do not wish to write a large book volume about the paleography of Arabic script, like many Orientalists have done before me, I will only mention here some good sources—which are easily reachable on the internet—about the history of Arabic people, Arabic inscriptions, Arabic script, and Kufic scripture, etc.

One can find many examples from the Nabataean script and other Arabic inscriptions discovered by archaeologists on internet sites. There are some websites on the internet that show all the Arabic inscriptions and scripts, including new archaeological discoveries, such as:

• Digital archive for the study of pre-Islamic Arabian inscriptions: https://dasi.cnr.it/
• History of the Arabic alphabet – Wikipedia
• https://corpuscoranicum.de/en
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Arabic_inscriptions
• https://www.islamic-awareness.org/history/islam/inscriptions
• The Qur’anic Manuscripts In Museums, Institutes, Libraries & Collections

Rather than conveying all the historical information I’ve gathered from the books of Orientalists and Muslim scholars, I wish to interpret certain aspects of Kufi scripture as they relate to various differing perspectives, whenever it seems imperative to do so.. For instance, we possess numerous historical relics of Arabic scripts—inscriptions, papyri, manuscripts written on parchment, and later, coins minted by Umayyads, as well as buildings like the Dome of the Rock, which is ornamented with Kufic calligraphy.

Kufi calligraphy from  The Dome of the Rock, one of the the oldest Islamic buildings, was constructed under the auspices of Umayyad ruler Adb al-Malik in 692.  *11

It seems scholars can never fully agree on these matters: the origin of the Arabic people, Arabic language, Arabic script, and Kufi script all appear dubious because of the many divergent interpretations offered by historians.  I think these paleographic and epigraphic studies, with their vast amounts of comparable data, should be analyzed by an artificial intelligence. I will not reiterate all the perplexing details of those paleographic investigations; nevertheless, I will provide a bibliography for the more curious readers, and many useful websites contain all these specific details.

For now, I recall what Wordsworth once said:

Enough of science and of art

Close up those barren leaves

Come forth and bring with you a hearth

That watches and receives. *12

2. Kufic Script: The Incarnation of the Word

How, then, can we “watch and receive,” and truly comprehend the meaning of Kufi calligraphy? First of all, in pre-Islamic Arab societies, writing was a limited skill, it primarily practiced within narrow circles. It was used mainly for commercial contracts, epitaphs, and occasionally for recording poetry. With the revelation of the Qur’an, however, writing underwent a qualitative transformation. Soon after the death of prophet, the imperative to preserve and disseminate the divine message necessitated the standardization and refinement of the script.

Why Kufi calligraphy is so important and what is its aesthetic value? First and foremost, there was no developed Arabic script during the Prophet’s era, whether its origins lay in Nabataean script, Lakhmid script, or not. It was  a distant relative, perhaps the last descendant, of the Phoenician alphabet. That script was not a full alphabet but an abjad. This means it primarily indicates only the consonants of words. Moreover, even with 28 consonants, only 18 had distinct sign symbols. The remaining consonants would later be indicated by the addition of different points, but even during the time of Uthman, these points were absent. The remaining letters were written with the same signs. Later   in Umayyad Era these same looking letters differentiated by the addition of dots.   So, the script evolved sufficiently to write Arabic only during the era of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan.  *13

*14.

The name of the script derives from Kufa, a city in southern Iraq which was considered as an intellectual center within the early Islamic period. Kufi script stands as the oldest and most significant style of Arabic script, indeed the most formative visual art of Islam. So profound was its influence that Islamic civilization itself became a civilization of scripture, a Kufic calligraphy civilization. In Christianity, Jesus is regarded as an incarnation of God, sometimes phrased as the Son of God or the Word of God. Similarly, Kufic calligraphy can be seen as the incarnation of the Word of God. This is because the Qur’an itself is considered the Word of God, intermittently revealed by Gabriel, and thus, Qur’anic verses could be regarded as excerpts from the heavenly guarded book of destiny, the Levh-i Mahfuz.

Qur`an as the rock inscription

From its inception, it was not merely an ordinary script but a holy scripture of the mushaf (book), the sacred text of the Qur’an. Kufic calligraphy itself emerged and developed specifically because of the Qur’an. Arabic sources indicate that only about 27 individuals in Mecca possessed writing skills, and some of them were indeed employed by the Prophet as scribes of revelation. In fact, Arabs had a predominantly oral culture before the Qur’an and did not favor writing extensively; their literature consisted primarily of poetry, which was also preferred to be memorized and recited by heart. Consequently, no sufficiently developed Arabic script existed at that time. Even the word “Qur’an” itself means “recited aloud”, refers not to a physical book but to a recitation, not yet compiled during the Prophet’s time and primarily conveyed through memorization. I will not delve into the detailed discussions about how the Qur’an was eventually compiled into a suhuf (collected surahs and verses between two covers, resembling a book) during the time of the first Caliph Abu Bakr.

*15.

It was during the reign of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan that some points and vowel signs were added to these letters to facilitate easier and more accurate reading. Therefore, if only a rudimentary Arabic script was rarely used during the Prophet’s time, and a fully developed Arabic script did not exist then, it implies that both the Arabic script and Arabic language grammar owe their development significantly to the imperative of writing the Qur’an. Subsequently, this script would come to be known as Kufic script.

*16.

3. Early Kufic Characteristics and the “Misnomer” Debate

The name “Kufic script” is derived from the city of Kūfa in Iraq—an important intellectual and political center during the early Islamic period. In fact, it is a misnomer because the term denotes more than a mere geographic origin, because it signifies a particular aesthetic discipline and a rich scriptural tradition.  In essence, the term “Kufi calligraphy” is a misnomer, attributed to numerous distinct Kufi styles and to the city of Kūfa itself. Compared with the more cursive and rounded Ḥijāzī script used in the Arabian Peninsula, Kufi is distinguished by its angularity, symmetry, and a structurally rigorous order.

That is, Kufi was the general designation for scripts featuring rectilinear and angular letter shapes until the emergence of other calligraphic styles. Later calligraphic letters somewhat resemble contemporary typography, where every letter is written precisely in the same shape and proportion each time it recurs. There is no such rigid rule for Kufi calligraphy, apart from its generally more angular and rectilinear appearance when compared to later cursive calligraphies. Kufi served as the general name for calligraphy for centuries until the advent of other calligraphic styles around the 11th century. I do not wish to reiterate all that has been written by orientalists about Arabic paleography and calligraphy; while such details might be important from the perspective of specialized scholarly investigations or debates, it seems unproductive to repeat all those dubious and confusing statements here. Scholars have assigned names to every different handwriting style by comparing extant manuscripts, referring to them as Mekki, Medeni, Hicazi, Basri, Kufi, etc.

Supposedly, Kufi developed more in Kufa city, hence the misnomer. Certainly, there is a majestic geometrical style commonly referred to as Kufi, as seen in the parchment manuscripts of the Qur’an, which conveys the sacredness of the word of Allah within the awesome beauty of its mystical style. But how can we definitively know that it developed particularly in Kufa City? And what exactly does this misnomer “Kufi” signify anyway? History reveals many different styles of Kufi; which one is specifically meant by the name “Kufi”?

Sheila S. Blair, who suggests that the term “Kufic” was introduced to Western scholarship by Jacob George Christian Adler (1756–1834). The name implies that the script originated in Kufa, Iraq, but this attribution is considered misleading by some experts, While the script is named after Kufa, it was used widely across the Islamic world, not just in that city. *17.

Nabia Abbott reasserts: `The earliest Muslim inscription, the tombstone of ‘Abd al-Rahman Ibn Khair al-Hajari, dated 31/652… It is certainly not Makkan and can safely be considered as poor Kufic.` *18

A more interested reader can delve into what ancient Islamic sources say about Kufi calligraphy by reading the first chapter of the book “İslam Kültür Mirasında Hat Sanatı” (The Art of Calligraphy in Islamic Cultural Heritage), written by Nihad M. Çetin and published by IRCICA. *19.

For example, ‘ Nabia Abbott says: `…Kufah and Basrah did not start their careers as Muslim cities until the second decade of Islam. But these cities were located closer to Anbar and Hirah in Irak, Kufah being but a few miles south of Hirah. We have already seen the major role the two earlier cities played in the evolution of Arabic writing, and it is but natural to expect them to have developed a characteristic script to which the newer cities of Kufah and Basrah fell heir, so that for Kufic and Basran script one is tempted to substitute Anbaran and Hiran … our study so far shows that the script of Hirah must have been the leading script in the 6th century and as such must have influenced all later scripts, including the Makkan – Madinan.` *20

Here is an example from the Sanaa manuscripts of what the Uthman’s Quran used to look like, as it is free of dots and diacritical marks. *21

History is a story that lost and forgotten in the past times like the forgotten dreams of Nebucadnezzar and historical studies cannot provide any exact proof. Some scholars propose that Arabic script originated from Musnad/Himyarī, others from Nabataean script, while still others discuss Syriac influence. All these debates involve a certain amount of guesswork.
The same applies to the misnomer “Kufic.” Scholars categorize some styles based on their supposed geographical centers, naming them Mekki, Medeni, Hijazi, Kufi, etc. In reality, these names merely designate different handwriting styles of the scripts. While “naming” should aid cognition and understanding, it does not necessarily imply an absolute reality and can sometimes lead to confusion as I have already stated in chapter one while ı was speaking about “name” and language.

Here is a description about the first manuscripts, in the Fihrist (Index of Books) provided by the Baghdadi bibliographer al‐Nadim, written in 987:

“The first Arabic scripts were the Meccan and after that the Madinan, then the Basran, then the Kufan. As regards the Meccan and Madinan, there is in its [sic] alifs a bend to the righthand side and an elevation of the vertical strokes; and in its form, there is a slight inclination…” *22

hijazi script, Hijazi was one of the earliest scripts, along with Mashq and Kufic.  The script is notably angular in comparison with other Arabic scripts and tends to slope to the right. The script does not yet contain any dots or diacritical marks to indicate vowel sounds: but does differentiate consonants by the intermittent use of dashes above the graphic letter forms. Hijazi script – Wikipedia

In Arabic, مَشَقَ mashaqa means “to stretch out”^[2] and the name مَشْق mashq references the fact that the letters د ,ص ,ط ,ك, and ى (as well as their dotted counterparts) are written stretched out. Mashq calligraphy is also notable for the shortened intervals between words. Mashq – Wikipedia

4. Oldest Qur`an Manuscripts

The Birmingham  Quran manuscript is a single sheet of parchment/ he parchment contains verses 17–31 of Surah 18 (Al-Kahf) on one leaf, while the other leaf contains the final eight verses 91–98 of Surah 19 (Maryam) and the first 40 verses of Surah 20 (Ta-Ha). The manuscript confirms the present-day sequence and conforms to the standard text. In 2015, the manuscript was radiocarbon dated to between 568 and 645 CE / 56 BH and 25 AH.  Since carbon dating is not an exact science, and we know that the first revelation of the Quran was not revealed until 610, we can speculate that this manuscript was written between 610 and 645 CE and could have been very well written during the prophet’s life. *24.

The “Qur’ān Of ʿUthmān” At The Al-Hussein Mosque (651–705 CE)

`The famous Quran of Uthman at the Al-Hussein Mosque in Cairo, Egypt, consists of 1087 folios, with only four folios missing. This signifies 99% of the entire Quran text. Each folio is about 48 cm x 51 cm with a height of 40 cm and weighs 80 kgs. The dating of this manuscript by various scholars has been summarized by Dr. Altikulaç, who was given special access to investigate the earliest muṣḥafs attributed to Uthman.  *25 He believed that, in all probability, it was a copy made on the order of the Governor of Egypt ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn Marwān (r. 685-705 CE / 65-86 AH).` *26

The Samarkand Qur`an (595 CE – 855 CE)

“Codex Mashhad” is a radically unique case among early Qurʾānic manuscripts. It consists of two ancient Qurʾānic manuscripts numbered 18 and 4116 held at the Āstān-i Quds Library in Mashhad, Iran. Written in the early ḥijāzī script, the codex comprises 252 folios containing over 95% of the Qurʾānic text. *30

The Sanaa palimpsest

Sanaa Quran is one of the oldest Quranic manuscripts in existence.

Sanaa Quran is one of the oldest Quranic manuscripts in existence.Part of a sizable cache of Quranic and non-Quranic fragments discovered in Yemen during a 1972 restoration of the Great Mosque of Sanaa, the manuscript was identified as a palimpsest Quran in 1981 as it is written on parchment and comprises two layers of text. *31

Folio of the Qur’an attributed to Ali b. Abi Talib (known as the Sanaa Mushaf) at Jami al-Kabir, Sanaa, Yemen.

Late 1st century / early 2nd century of hijra. A facsimile edition of this manuscript appeared in the year 2011.^[1] According to Dr. Tayyar Altikulaç, the editor of facsimile edition, the method of dotting and vowelling among other characteristics of this manuscript suggests a second half of the 1st century AH date *32

And finally. here ‘s a ketebe/sign of Ali in the Qur`an manuscript

ketebehu ali ibni ebi talib,   *33

chapter three

1. Evolution of the Script

Before Islam, the Arabs had a predominantly oral culture. Their main art form was poetry, an immaterial heritage deposited, as the Arabic language puts it, “in the breasts of men” (fi sudur al‐nas)….In a matter of decades, the Arabs laid the cornerstones of an  accomplished tradition of calligraphy, and of a civilization in which the written and spoken word would become inextricably interwoven. This profound transformation was initially triggered by the need to record the Qurʾan,  and perhaps also by the logistics of conquest, which required the reliable communication of information across vast distances. * 1

In the Pre-Islamic period, the Arabic script was very primitive.Being an abjad alphabet it has only 17 letters for instead of 28. It lacked diacritical marks (dots) to distinguish between similar letters and contained no vowel markings. This deficiency made reading difficult, particularly for non-native Arabic speakers, as Islam rapidly expanded beyond the Arabian Peninsula. According to traditional islamic sources Qur`an have been collected by Caliph Abubakr and standardized by the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644-656 CE).  He commissioned the first official compilation of the Qur’an, thereby establishing a standard text.

But writing that primitive arabic script correctly some dots should be added to the letters to differ them from each other’ for example   b, y., t, th and nun consonants.   The need to write and articulate arabic correctly, some significant improvements in the writing system to ensure the accurate preservation of the sacred text.

The  Qur’anic codices produced during the caliphate of ʿUthmān may not yet have been strictly termed “Kufic,” they indisputably represent a foundational stage in its development. These early codices notably lacked diacritical marks and vowel signs—a reality that, given the polysemic nature of Arabic, frequently led to interpretive ambiguities. This intrinsic challenge propelled the gradual elaboration of a more precise writing system.

There was also a cursive  handwriting script in the early centuries of Islam:  cursive script was employed for everday purposes Kūfi script, however, seems to have been developed for religious and official purposes. Kūfic is a more or less square and angular script. Professional copyists employed a particular form for reproducing the earliest copies of the Qurʾān that have survived. These are written on parchment and date from the 8th to the 10th century. They are mostly of an oblong as opposed to codex (i.e., manuscript book) format. The writing is frequently large, especially in the early examples, so that there may be as few as three lines to a single page. The script can hardly be described as stiff and angular; rather, the implied pace is majestic and measured.

A line of Arabic suggests an urgent progress of the characters from right to left. The nice balance between the vertical shafts above and the open curves below the middle register induces a sense of harmony. The peculiarity that certain letters cannot be joined to their neighbours provides articulation. For writing, the Arabic calligrapher employs a reed pen (qalam) with the working point cut on an angle. This feature produces a thick downstroke and a thin upstroke with an infinity of gradation in between. The line traced by a skilled calligrapher is a true marvel of fluidity and sensitive inflection, communicating the very action of the master’s hand. britannicaCalligraphy – Arabic, Scripts, Art | Britannica

“The birth of kufic represented in many ways, a radical break with the past  in which Hijazi had still neen anchored.The rules that were defined at the outset of the kufic tradition essentially remained the same throughout ıts lifespan.whereas  Hijazi styles were akin to individual hand writing, kufic represents a mature calligraphy based on extremely precise definitions. Let us take one letter, medial ha2, as an example.

… In much the same way, key letters appear in consistently same  form in each of the seventeen main  Kufic styles, which boil down to six broad families.  The adherence to these rules is, in most manuscripts, very close, becoming looser in less stylistically accomplished examples.”  The rıse of ıislamic calligraphy alain george p 55

Caliph abdulmalik built the dome of rock, made arabic language official in he ordered that arabic coinage minted wıth kufic scripts on it.

At the very end of the 7th century, the reign of caliph Abd al-Malik saw a complete rebranding (to use a modern but appropriate word) of the Islamic empire to give it its own ydistinctive identity. Arabic became the official language, new coinage was minted, and the first distinctly Islamic monument, the Dome of the Rock, was built in Jerusalem. Inside the Dome, a mosaic inscription displays the earliest known example of Kufi, possibly the prototype for all that followed (I discuss this more below, under Manuscript Kufic). There we can see an elegant mature script, deliberately proportioned, with a consistency of appearance thanks to a small number of shapes that echo each other from letter to letter. There was no transition period, no gradual evolution between the primitive jazm and this fully developed Kufi: it appeared virtually overnight, so that we can be sure the script was redesigned purposefully. Other inscriptions above the north and east doors, engraved in copper, show this same transformation, with the metallic support allowing for even more pronounced geometry in the letters, some of which are based on perfect circles. In both cases, there is a clear underlying grid onto which the letters are mapped. Kufi was the first Arabic script to be made consciously beautiful.

majnoune.com/kufi

Under the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE), pivotal developments transpired:

• Introduction of Diacritical Marks: Abu al-Aswad al-Du’ali (d. 688 CE) is traditionally credited with introducing dots to differentiate between otherwise identical letters.
• Vowel Notation System: A system utilizing colored dots was devised to indicate short vowels, which are conventionally not written in Arabic script.
• Standardization: The script became progressively more standardized as its use expanded for administrative purposes throughout the burgeoning Islamic empire.

These innovations proved indispensable for preserving the correct recitation of the Qur’an and for facilitating the widespread adoption of Arabic literacy among non-Arab converts to Islam.

The Umayyad period witnessed the seminal introduction of diacritical markings by Abū al-Aswad al-Duʾalī, subsequently followed by the contributions of al-Khalīl ibn Aḥmad, who further refined the dotting system. These innovations substantially enhanced the clarity and functionality of the Arabic script, thereby reinforcing the pivotal role of Kufic script in the preservation and transmission of the Qur’an.

2. Dome of the Rock

3. Kufi’s Artistic Maturation

By the 8th and 9th centuries, Kufic was no longer confined exclusively to Qur’anic manuscripts. It began to proliferate across diverse media—architecture, coinage, ceramics, textiles, and metalwork. This significant diversification signals that Kufic had evolved into both a functional script and a potent symbolic medium. It matured into an aesthetic form that could be visually apprehended, physically touched, and seamlessly integrated into spatial environments.

During the Abbasid period, the formal institutionalization of calligraphy as an art form played a decisive role in the full maturation of Kufic script. Major cultural centers such as Baghdad, Kūfa, and Baṣra saw the burgeoning of scriptoria and schools dedicated to its ongoing development. Consequently, various regional and functional styles of Kufic began to emerge, including Eastern Kufic (mashriqī), Western Kufic (maghribī), Square Kufic (murabbaʿ), and ornamental Kufic, among others. Each distinct variant reflects specific cultural and aesthetic evolutions of the script.

From a paleographic perspective, studying the transformation of Kufic script offers critical insights into the broader history of writing itself. Early Qur’anic manuscripts typically featured large letters and generous spacing between lines. Over time, the script became more compact, stylistically elaborate, and enriched with decorative elements. These progressive changes reflect not only technical innovations in writing but also profound shifts in aesthetic sensibilities, religious consciousness, and political symbolism within Islamic societies.

The Qur’an is the Islamic scripture. Muslims regard the Qur’an as the revealed word of God, received and transmitted by his messenger Muhammad (d.632) in the seventh century CE. Originally transmitted orally and regularly recited as a matter of worship and piety, the text of the Qur’an was authoritatively established within twenty years after the Prophet Muhammad’s death. This form became the model for subsequent copying and distribution. Qur’anic recitation and calligraphy are among the most respected forms of art in Islam, and each are performed according to well established rules (eg tajwīd for recitation) that are transmitted from master to student.

Selection of Qur’anic manuscripts from the early Abbasid period – U-M Library MediaSpace | MiVideo

Kūfic went out of general use about the 11th century, although it continued to be used as a decorative element contrasting with those scripts that superseded it. About 1000 a new script was established and came to be used for copying the Qurʾān. This is the so-called naskhī script, which has remained perhaps the most popular script in the Arab world. It is a cursive script based on certain laws governing the proportions between the letters. The two names associated with its development are Ibn Muqlah and Ibn al-Bawwāb, both of whom lived and worked in Mesopotamia. Of the latter’s work a single authentic example survives, a manuscript of the Qurʾān in the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin.

In summary, Kufic script emerged from within the nascent Arabic script tradition but rapidly transcended it, becoming a multifaceted cultural form that eloquently conveyed the sacred and aesthetic codes of Islamic civilization. Its paleographic evolution distinctly mirrors the broader transformation of Islamic societies—their core values, modes of expression, and distinct approaches to textuality. Thus, Kufic is not merely a relic of the distant past; it stands as one of the clearest indicators of how the written word has historically functioned as a profound bearer of faith, art, and identity.

Calligraphy – Arabic, Scripts, Art | Britannica

4. Kufic as an Archetype and Its Diverse Styles

Kufic represents the oldest calligraphic form; it developed around the seventh century, and by the orders of Caliph Uthman ibn Affan, it was extensively and exclusively employed for copying the Qur’an until the eleventh century. The Kufic script is a style of Arabic script that gained early prominence as the preferred script for Qur’an transcription and architectural decoration, and it has since become a fundamental reference and an archetype for numerous other Arabic scripts.

Kufic is characterized by its angular, rectilinear letterforms and its pronounced horizontal orientation. According to Enis Timuçin Tan, a primary characteristic of the Kufic script “appears to be the transformation of the ancient cuneiform script into the Arabic letters.” Furthermore, it was marked by figural letters specifically shaped to be beautifully rendered on parchment, buildings, and decorative objects like lusterware and coins.

Kufic script is fundamentally composed of geometrical forms such as straight lines and angles, alongside clear verticals and horizontals. Initially, Kufic did not possess what is now known as differentiated consonants, meaning, for example, that the letters “t,” “b,” and “th” were not distinguished by diacritical marks and appeared identical. During the first few centuries of Islam, Arabic was written without any vowel marks or dots, unlike how the Arabic script appears today. This was because these auxiliary markers were not yet necessary; the early Muslims were native Arabic speakers and could thus read the Qur’an without such aids. However, this changed as Islam expanded, becoming a multinational and multiracial religion. The necessity for vowel markings and dots arose to denote different sounds and establish distinctions between similar-looking characters, and these additions remain integral to the Qur’an today. The Kufic script dots were sometimes rendered in red ink. It is believed that a scribe named Abdul Aswad was the first to introduce these markings .

The Qur’an was initially written in a plain, slanted, and uniform script, but once its content became formalized, a script signifying authority emerged. This coalesced into what is now known as Primary Kufic script. Kufic was widely prevalent in manuscripts from the 7th to the 10th centuries. Around the 8th century, with its austere and relatively low vertical profile and strong horizontal emphasis, it stood as the most important among several variants of Arabic scripts. Until approximately the 11th century, it served as the principal script used for copying the Qur’an. Professional copyists employed a specific form of Kufic for reproducing the earliest surviving copies of the Qur’an, which were written on parchment and date from the 8th to 10th centuries. In later Kufic Qur’ans of the ninth and early tenth century, “the sura headings were more often designed with the sura title as the main feature, often written in gold, with a palmette extending into the margin,” as noted by Marcus Fraser. One impressive example of an early Qur’an manuscript, known as the Blue Qur’an, features gold Kufic script on parchment dyed with indigo.

It is commonly attributed to the early Fatimid or Abbasid court. The main text of this Qur’an is inscribed in gold ink, creating the striking effect of gold on blue when viewing the manuscript.

5. Regional Variations and Styles of Kufic

ENDÜLÜS VE MAĞRİB’TE KUFİ HATTININ TARİHİ GELİŞİMİ
Abdülkadir YILMAZ p.135 28715

There were no rigidly set rules governing the use of the Kufic script; its only consistent feature was the angular, linear shapes of its characters. Due to this lack of standardized methods, the scripts varied considerably across different regions, countries, and even among individual scribes, leading to diverse creative approaches. These ranged from very square and rigid forms to more flowery and decorative styles.

Several regional variations of Kufic script evolved over time:

• Maghribi (Moroccan or Western) Kufic: While still rigid, linear, and thick, Maghribi Kufic script features a significant amount of curves and loops, in contrast to the more rectilinear original Arabic Kufic script. Loops for characters such as the Waw and the Meem are notably pronounced and sometimes exaggerated.
• 
• loosely related family of Arabic scripts that developed in the Maghreb (North Africa), al-Andalus (Iberia), and Bilad as-Sudan (the West African Sahel). Maghrebi script is directly derived from the Kufic script
• Kufi Mashriqi (Eastern Kufic):
• 
• This is a thinner, more cursive, and decorative form of Kufic prevalent in eastern regions. The nib of the pen used for this style is finer, and it exhibits greater cursiveness, with some characters extending into long, sweeping strokes. Nevertheless, it remains within the angular vocabulary characteristic of Kufic script. Kufi Script – ACAS
• Fatimi Kufi: Predominant in the North African region, particularly Egypt. Since this script is highly stylized and decorative, this form was primarily utilized in the ornamentation of buildings. Fatimi Kufi script can be observed with intricate decorations among the characters, suchulating the inclusion of the Endless Knot or vegetal motifs, both within the character itself and as a background design.
• Square Kufic (Murabba’ Kufi): Also known as geometric Kufic, this is a highly simplified rectangular style widely adopted for tiling. It is characterized by absolute straightness with no decorative accents or curves whatsoever. Due to this extreme rigidity, this type of script can be readily created using square tiles or bricks. It is particularly popular in Iran and Turkey, where in the latter, it was a favored decoration for buildings during the Ottoman Empire.
• 
• 
• ali-muhammed in a similar design
• Decorative Kufic: Primarily used for adorning daily items such as plates, bowls, vases, or ewers. Quite often, inscriptions executed in this script are barely legible due to the extensive ornamentation. A letter might virtually disappear within elaborate decorations that could involve transforming letters into vegetal forms like vines and leaves, or by being written very thinly with exaggerated vertical lines and

• Ghaznavid and Khourasan Scripts: These two other forms of the Kufic script were developed in Iran. These scripts have the same thickness as the original Kufic script, with long vertical lines and decorative ends. (Taking A Closer Look At Arabic Calligraphy – MuslimMatters.org) These scripts were mostly employed for monument decoration, coinage, and daily items. The Khourasan script is as thick as the Original Arabic Kufic script, but with a simple flair added to each character. The Ghaznavid Kufi features elongated vertical lines and rounded ends, often with surrounding decorations.
• e
• 

Coin of Mahmud minted in Ghazni.

• 
• Detail of the Intricate Brickwork on the Mas’ud III Ghazni minaret.  Ghaznavids – Wikipedia

6. Ornamental Use of Kufic Script

el mulku lillah

elhukmu lillah

el shukru lillah

Tırâz – İDA Blog

Ornamental Kufic emerged as a crucial element in Islamic art as early as the eighth century, serving for Qur’anic headings, numismatic inscriptions, and significant commemorative writings. The Kufic script is famously inscribed on textiles (tiraz), coins, lusterware, buildings, and other artifacts. Coins, in particular, played a very important role in the development of Kufic script. Indeed, “the letter strokes on coins had become perfectly straight, with curves tending toward geometrical circularity by 86,” observes Alain George. As an example, Kufic is commonly seen on Seljuk coins and monuments and on early Ottoman coins. In Iran, entire buildings are sometimes covered with tiles spelling sacred names like those of God, Muhammad, and Ali in Square Kufic, a technique known as banna’i.

Bannai, Isfahan 15th/16th century, Koran–Sura 112 al-Ikhlāṣ

7.  “Pseudo-Kufic” or “Kufesque,” terms that refer to imitations of the Kufic script made in a non-Arabic context during the Middle Ages or the Renaissance. The distinct artistic styling of Kufic eventually led to its decorative use in Europe, outside of an Arabic context, particularly on architecture.

Part of the metal facade on the main door to the Cathedral of Seville (c. 1500), showing both arabesque and pseudo-Kufic design elements  Pseudo-Kufic – Wikipedia

7. Conclusion: Kufic Calligraphy at the Intersection of Art, Theology, and Philosophy
El mulku lillah

The history of Arabic script and Kufic calligraphy represents one of the most significant artistic and cultural developments in Islamic civilization. From its humble beginnings as a practical writing system to its elevation as a sublime art form, Arabic calligraphy has played a central role in shaping Islamic visual culture and identity. The development of Arabic script reflects the dynamic interplay of religious, political, cultural, and aesthetic factors throughout Islamic history. The early standardization efforts during the Umayyad and Abbasid periods laid the foundation for the flourishing  of calligraphic arts. The contributions of master calligraphers like Ibn Muqla, Ibn al  Bawwab, and Yaqut al-Musta’simi established systematic approaches to letter formation that continue to influence calligraphers today. Kufic calligraphy, with its distinctive angular character, holds a special place in this history as the first formalized style of Arabic script. Its use in early Quranic manuscripts and architectural decoration established a visual language that became immediately recognizable as Islamic. The evolution of Kufic into various regional styles demonstrates the adaptability and creative potential of this script. The political dimension of Arabic calligraphy cannot be overlooked. Throughout Islamic history, rulers and elites patronized calligraphers and used calligraphic inscriptions to assert their legitimacy and piety. The mutual relationship between political power and calligraphic development shaped the evolution of styles and techniques. The versatility of Arabic calligraphy is evident in its application across various media— from manuscripts to monumental architecture, from textiles to metalwork, from coins to ceramics. This adaptability allowed calligraphy to permeate all aspects of Islamic material culture, creating a unified visual language across diverse regions and periods. The significance of Arabic calligraphy extends far beyond its aesthetic appeal. As a sacred art connected to divine revelation, a cultural symbol that unites diverse communities, an aesthetic tradition of remarkable sophistication, an intellectual discipline that integrates various fields of knowledge, and a social practice embedded in complex networks of patronage and power, calligraphy has played a central role in shaping Islamic civilization. In the contemporary world, Arabic calligraphy continues to evolve and adapt to new contexts while maintaining its connection to tradition. Modern calligraphers and artists draw inspiration from historical styles while experimenting with new materials, techniques, and compositions. Educational initiatives aim to preserve and transmit calligraphic knowledge to future generations. The enduring legacy of Arabic script and Kufic calligraphy can be seen in its continued vitality and relevance. As one source eloquently states, “Its historical roots, spiritual significance, and aesthetic beauty make it an integral part of Islamic heritage; whether engraved in the walls of a mosque or carefully inscribed upon the pages of a manuscript, Islamic calligraphy invites us to pause, reflect, and appreciate the beauty of words written in the name of Allah” In a world increasingly dominated by digital communication and mass-produced imagery, the handcrafted beauty and spiritual depth of Arabic calligraphy offer a powerful reminder of the potential for human creativity to express and embody sacred values. The tradition of Arabic calligraphy thus stands as one of the most significant and distinctive contributions of Islamic civilization to world culture, a living tradition that continues to evolve while maintaining its essential connection to its spiritual and cultural roots.

Contemporary Significance Cultural Heritage and Identity

In the contemporary world, Arabic calligraphy continues to serve as an important marker of cultural heritage and identity for Muslims. As traditional arts face challenges from globalization and technological change, calligraphy has taken on new significance as a link to Islamic cultural roots. Recognition of this importance can be seen in recent initiatives like Saudi Arabia extending the Year of Arabic Calligraphy into 2021 and UNESCO registering the art form on its Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage. These efforts reflect a growing awareness of the need to preserve and promote calligraphic traditions for future generations.